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UNJAB, 



)a, and parts of other Mission Fields. 




Life and Work in India 



AN ACCOUNT OF THE 

CONDITIONS, METHODS, DIFFICULTIES, RESULTS, FUTURE 
PROSPECTS AND REFLEX INFLUENCE 

OF 

MISSIONARY LABOR IN INDIA 

ESPECIALLY IN THE 

Punjab Mission of the united Presbyterian Church of 
north america 



NEW EDITION, WITH ADDENDA 



/ BY 

ROBERT STEWART, D. D. 

ONE OF THE WORKERS 



PHILADELPHIA 

PEARL PUBLISHING CO. 

1899 



THE HEART OF THE PUNJAB, 

Showing the Mission Field of the United Presbyterian Church of North America, and parts of other Mission Fields. 




EoS\Wl s ! Y I E R * A N ? ' " ^W AN I 









-3 



b* 






38466 

COPYRIGHT, 1896, BY ROBERT STEWART 
COPYRIGHT, I899, BY ROBERT STEWART 

TWO GO? it- a viiCeiVEB* 



PRINTED BY 

GEO, S. FERGUSON CO., 

PRINTERS & ELECTROTYPERS, 

PHILADELPHIA, PA., U. S. A. 







PREFACE 



'T^HIS book deals with both the facts and the theory of 
missions. It presents the surroundings, the details 
and the results of Christian pioneer work, especially as 
they are exhibited in the great field of modern missions 
— India. And it strives to do so in a fuller and more 
systematic form than that of any single volume now be- 
fore the public. 

A concrete case is made the chief source of illustra- 
tion, so as to give unity, vividness and point to the nar- 
rative ; and naturally the example selected for this pur- 
pose is that one with which the writer is most familiar 
and in reference to which he can speak from personal 
observation and experience. But this case is largely a 
typical one, and in all its main features resembles that of 
most other missions in India ; while, in many of its 
characteristics, it bears a strong likeness to foreign 
missions in every part of the world. Moreover, dif- 
ferences, when they do exist, are frequently noted. 
Hence the author expects his book to be read with in- 
terest, not only by members of his own church, but also 
by Christians of every name. 

Considerable attention is given to missionary problems, 
and the arguments, or materials, required for their solu- 
tion are frequently presented. Especially does the 
writer point out the difficulties which lie in the way of 

(3) 



4 PREFACE 

the development of a mature, self-supporting, self-gov- 
erning church in non-Christian lands, and show the need 
of the removal of these obstructions if the great mission- 
ary enterprise is to accomplish its glorious end with 
rapid speed. 

A copious index has been added to the volume to 
make it more useful as a manual, or a book of reference. 

And now, having completed his task conscientiously 
and as carefully as he could, the author sends out his 
book to the world in the hope and with the prayer that, 
through the blessing of God, it may be made the humble 
means of advancing in some degree that important cause 
to which it is devoted. 

Robert Stewart. 

St. Clairsville, Ohio, 
December, 1895. 



Preface to trie New Edition 



This edition gives additional facts and statistics, 
brought out in the recent history of the Mission, but 
exhibits no change of conclusions. 

Robert Stewart. 

New Wilmington, Pa.. 
July 7, 1899. 



CONTENTS 



MAP — Heart of the Punjab and U. P. Mission Field Frontispiece 



CHAPTER I — Approaches to the Field 
Ordinary Routes — Lines of Steamers — Passage Taken — Description of Journey — - 
Liverpool, Gibraltar, Red Sea, Bombay — By Rail in India — Lines on tke Pacific 
— Projected Routes by Arabia or the Euphrates — The Transcaspian Line.. . .9-20 

CHAPTER II — Outside Political Conditions 
China and Baluchistan — Burmese War — Border Warfare — Manipur Rebellion — - 
The Mahdi — Dhulip Singh — Russia's Progress in Asia — English Fear of Russia 
— Afghanistan a Buffer — What we Dreaded Most 21-27 

CHAPTER III— British Rule in India 
The Machine, Civil and Military — The Viceroys : Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne 
and Elgin — The Lieut. -Governors of the Punjab — Object of British Rule in 
India — How it Helps and How it Obstructs Mission Work 28-39 

CHAPTER IV— Climatic Conditions 
The Monsoons — The Hot Season — The Rains — Hail, Dust Storms and Earth- 
quakes 40-43 

CHAPTER V— Sanitary Conditions 
Unfavorable to Health — Deaths by Violence — Experience with Snakes and Scor- 
pions — Diseases — Cholera, Small-pox and Fever — Health Resorts — Dharmsala, 
Murree and Kashmir — Their Drawbacks 44~54 

CHAPTER VI — Domestic and Social Conditions 
Houses — Furniture — Clothing — Food — Punkhas — Vermin — Servants — Separation of 
Families — Homes for Children — Salaries — Recreations — Intercourse with Anglo- 
Indians — With Travelers — With Natives 55 - 68 

CHAPTER VII— Financial Conditions 

Ordinary Appropriations — Gifts for Special Objects — For Permanent Improvements 

— The Stewart Fund — The Q. C. Fund — Help from the Women's Board and 

Sabbath Schools — Contributions in India Itself — Government Aid — Favorable 

Exchange 69-73 

CHAPTER VIII — Conditions of Travel and Communication 
Metaled Roads — Mud Roads and Bypaths — Railways — Dak Garies — Tongas — 
Ekkas — Dolies — Dandies — Shigrams — Tum-tum — Control of Public Conveyances 
— Traveling Outfit — Inns — The India Postal Service — Its Arrangements and Ad- 
vantages 74-84 

(5) 



6 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IX — Linguistic Conditions 

Many Tongues in India— The Hindustani — The Punjabi— The Acquisition of Lan- 
guages — Conditions of Success 85-88 

CHAPTER X — Missionary Neighbors 

Some Unpleasant Facts— More of a Different Character— Aid in Evangelism, Educa- 
tion and Christian Conflicts — Inter-Mission Conferences and Organizations — 
The Presbyterian Alliance — Presbyterian Union — Christian Literature 89-93 

CHAPTER XI— Our Special Field 

Missions in India — Their History — Number of Laborers— Division of the Land — 
Missionary Comity— The Punjab— Missions Established There— The United 
Presbyterian Field— Its Growth and Size — Points of Historical, Geographical, 
Commercial and Scientific Interest 94-106 

CHAPTER XII— Our Special Field— Its People 

Punjabies and the Inhabitants of India — Their Race and Physical Characteristics — 
Their Occupations, Village Life, Wages, Clothing and Religion — A Compara- 
tive Census — Modern Hinduism Described — Hinduism in the Punjab — Sikhism 
— The Jains — The Buddhists — The Arya Samaj — The Parsees — The Muham- 
madans and Muhammadanism— Low-Caste People — Europeans, Eurasians and 
Native Christians 107-1 28 

CHAPTER XIII— Organization for Work 

Missionaries not Independent — Church Courts and Missionary Societies — The 
Missionary Association, its History, Constitution, Powers and Methods — The 
Missionary's Individual Authority — His Relation to Native Agents 129-139 

CHAPTER XIV— Secular Work 
Learning the Vernacular Language — Financial Business — Sub-Treasurers' Work — 
Superintendents' — General Treasurer's — Purchase of Land — Building Houses 
— Repairs — Teaching and Managing Schools — Medical Work — Remedies Dis- 
cussed 140-147 

CHAPTER XV— Evangelistic Work— I 
Aim of Missions — General Principles — Home Religion — Employer's Influence — 
Social Intercourse — Mistakes Corrected — Bazar Preaching — Melas 148-161 

CHAPTER XVI— Evangelistic Work— II 
The Educational Policy — Dr. Duff's Course — Government Education, Its History 
and Provisions — Mission Schools — Their Lack of Conversions — Causes- 
Arguments Against the Educational Policy — Arguments in Favor of it — 
Present Duty — Policy of the U. P. Mission — Conclusion 162-173 

CHAPTER XVII— Evangelistic Work— III 
Zenana and Medical Work — Conversion of Indian Women — Its Importance — Igno- 
rance of these Women — Their Power in the Home — The Zenana Described — 
The Zenana Worker's Experience and Methods — Her Advantages and Disad- 
vantages — Results — Medical Missionary Work — Its Growth and Necessity — 
Objections and Benefits — Our Own Special Efforts in this Line — A History and a 
Report 174-183 



COXTEXTS 7 

CHAPTER XVIII -Evangelistic Work— IV 
Through Literature — Itineration — Congregational Services — Efforts of the Common 
People — Moral and Spiritual Character — Testimony Bearing 184-197 

CHAPTER XIX— Evangelistic Work— V 
Through Forms and Ceremonies — Apologies — Controversy — Worldly Influences — 
Asceticism and Fakirism 1 98-2 1 7 

CHAPTER' XX— Obstruction and Persecution 
Physical Hindrances — Hindrances from the Government — From European Resi- 
dents — From Neighboring Missions and Missionaries — From Lack of Funds — 
From Imperfection of Laborers — From Different Views of Mission Policy — From 
False Religions — From Caste — Opposition to Our Getting Locations for Work — 
To Our Prosecution of Labor — To the Hearing of the Gospel — To Religious In- 
quiry — To the Belief of the Truth — To Baptism and a Public Profession — Persecu- 
tion of Low-Ca»te Converts by High-Caste People and by Low-Caste Neighbors 
— Continued Persecution of Christians After their Baptism — Little Persecution 
unto Death — Caste Giving Way Somewhat 218-236 

CHAPTER XXI— Evangelistic Results— I 
General Influence — Secret Converts — Professing Christians, their Number and Dis- 
tribution — Classes from which they are drawn — Causes of this 237-248 

• CHAPTER XXII— Evangelistic Results— II 
Character of Native Christians — Doubts of Some Regarding their Piety — No " Re- 
vivals "' — Many Ignorant and Imperfect — Some Fall Away — Proofs of a Work of 
Grace — Many Stand Good Church Examinations — Make Great Sacrifices — Bear 
Persecution — Desire Knowledge — Love their Christian Teachers — Exhibit Com- 
paratively High Morality — Christian Servants, Worthless or Not ? — Why — Native 
Christians Not Specially Covetous — But Liberal — Show Continual Improvement — 
Are Anxious for the Salvation of Others — Testimony as to the Character of Indi- 
viduals — Ameera — Daulah — Chhero 249-260 

CHAPTER XXIII— Lower Training of Christians 
Stages of Missionary Work — Training of Christians in a Compound — In a Village — 
The Underworker — Village Life — Primary Duties — Worship Described — Singing, 
Prayer, Sacraments — The Sabbath School — Secular Schools — Their Drawbacks — 
Teaching Urdu — Central Schools and Inspectors — Panchayats — Sub-superintend- 
ence — The Missionary's Work — Monthly Meetings — Methods Autocratic — Melas 
— Christian Villages or Settlements — Hindrances to Primary Training — The Re- 
sult 261-276 

CHAPTER XXIV— Higher Training of Christians— I 
Its Necessity — Means Employed — Central Schools — The Christian Training Insti- 
tute, its History, Character and Results — The Girls' Boarding School — The The- 
ological Seminar}- — Why Greek and Hebrew Should Be Taught Theological 
Students in India 277-293 

CHAPTER XXV— Higher Training of Christians— II 
Schools of Neighboring Missions — Success of Higher Education Among our Peo- 
ple — Schemes of Private Study — Summer Schools — Religious Conventions — 
Monthly Meetings — Church Courts and their Drawbacks — Religious Literature — 
Bible Translations — How Made and Circulated — The L'rdu Version — The Pun- 
jabi — The Psalms in Meter — Bhajans — Indian Lyric Poetry — Catechisms — Other 
Books, Tracts and Newspapers — Theology — History — Book of Discipline — 
Summary of Vernacular Christian Literature 294-309 



8 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XXVI — Ecclesiastical Development and Maturity — I 
Financial Self-support — Extreme Rarity in Mission Lands — Apparent Exceptions- 
Madagascar — Missions of the C. M. S. and S. P. G. — Japan — The Sandwich 

Islands — A Burning Question — Our Own Mission Like Others Generally 

Churches Not Financially Self-sustaining — Efforts and Progress Made — Reme- 
dies Proposed — Lessening Salaries — Increasing Contributions — Have Missions 
Started Wrong ?— PoVerty of the Native Church — How this May Be Remedied — 
By Education, Industrial Training and Agricultural Settlements — Their Draw- 
backs—By Church Growth Especially Among the Rich — Practical Suggestions- 
Neighboring Missions 310-332 

CHAPTER XXVII— Ecclesiastical Development and Maturity— II 
Church Organization — Our Defects in this Particular— Are they Justifiable ?•• 333-337 

CHAPTER XXVIII— Ecclesiastical Development and Maturity— III 
Self- Governing Power — What it Implies — Fewness of our Ministers — Cause of the 
Deficiency — Character of our Elders and Ministers — Capability of Exercising 
Self-Government— Objections Considered— Advantages Presented— Evils thus 
Removed— Instructive Precedents — Additional Objections Answered — Sum- 

mar y 338-350 

CHAPTER XXIX— The Outlook 
Statistics Encouraging — Comparative Progress of Other Religions — Islam Making 
Few Converts — Statement of the I. E. R. — Spurts of Hindu Revival — Caste Giv- 
ing Way — Gross Hinduism Diminishing — Reforms Advancing — Indifference of 
Many Hindus to their Faith — Brighter Record of Christian Missions — Splendid 
Field among the Lowly — Danger of Compromise — Danger of Neglecting the De- 
pressed Classes — Danger of Unbrotherly Interference — Danger of Neglecting the 
Native Christians and the Native Church — But Great Hope of Triumph — Not 
Immediately — Nor as The Statesman Forecasts — But in a Century or two — The 
Church like a Banyan Tree 35 I- 36l 

CHAPTER XXX— The Reflex Influence of Missions 
Physical Effects — Nervous Exhaustion— Fret and Worry — Shortened Life — Intellec- 
tual Stimulus — Literary and Linguistic Culture — Social Effects — Influence on Pa- 
triotism — And on Piety — Trial of Temper — Opportunities for Private Devotion and 
the Study of God's Word — The Atmosphere of Heathenism — Burns' Experience 
— Habit of Suspicion — Reflex Influence of Autocratic Power and Secular Work — 
Discouragements — Conflicts — Favorable Side — First Impetus of Zeal — Divine 
Promises — Consciousness of a Great Work — Prayers at Home — Rapid Conver- 
sions — Opportunity for Compassion — Fraternal Intercourse — Disgust at Heathen- 
ism — Active Evangelism — Liberality — Prospect of Reward — A Summing Up — 
Qualifications of an Indian Missionary — Reflex Influence of Missions on the 
Home Church 362-382 

Statistical Appendix 383-386 

Topical Index 387-413 



Life and Work in India 




CHAPTER I 

APPROACHES TO THE FIELD 

Ordinary Routes— Lines of Steamers— Passage Taken— Description of Journey- 
Liverpool, Gibraltar, Red Sea, Bombay— By Rail in India— Lines on the Pacific 
—Projected Routes by Arabia or the Euphrates— The Transcaspian Line. 

[HE opening of the Suez Canal in November, 1869, revolu- 
tionized Eastern navigation more than any other event that 
has occurred during this century — except, it may be, the 
application of steam as a propelling power to ocean vessels. 
The distance between London and Bombay by the Cape of Good 
Hope is 11,220 miles; by the Isthmus of Suez, 6332 miles— a differ- 
ence of nearly 5000 miles. This means a reduction of almost three weeks 
in the time taken by an ordinary Oriental steamer in passing between 
the two points, or a shortening of the journey by water to about one- 
half what it formerly was. 

Making due allowance for detention at Liverpool in changing vessels, 
it now requires from five to seven weeks for a traveler to go from New 
York to the western coast of India, and a week less if he crosses the 
continent of Europe by rail and takes a steamer at Marseilles or one 
of the Italian ports.* 

One or the other of these routes is that chosen by most of our 
American missionaries in reaching their fields of labor in the great 
Asiatic peninsula. Sometimes Philadelphia, Boston or Baltimore is 
made the point of departure. Our own Foreign Board — that of the 
United Presbyterian Church of North America — has often sent its 

* Recently the mails were transmitted, via Brindisi, to Bombay in about three 
weeks ; but this was a rare passage. 

(9) 



10 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



agents by the Ameri- 
can Line from the 
first-n a m e d city, 
where this Board is 
located ; but a large 
majority of those who 
leave our shores to 
labor for Christ in 
India cross the At- 
lantic by one of 
the great lines which 
run between New 
York and Liverpool. 
From Liverpool, or 
London, to Calcutta, 
Madras, Bombay or 
Karachi, passage on 
some steamer going 
around by the Strait 
of Gilbraltar can gen- 
erally be secured in 
a few days ; or the 
traveler may "book" 
through by rail to 
some port on the 
Mediterranean, and, 
by prearrangemen.t, 
meet a ship there. 
The advantages of 
the latter course are 
a saving of time, an 
opportunity of sight- 
seeing on the conti- 
nent and freedom 
from the perils and 
the seasickness of 
the Bay of Biscay. 
Its disadvantages are 
greater expense and trouble and the limitation of the amount of a 




LINES OF STEAMERS H 

passenger's luggage. Excess of baggage is, in this case, generally 
sent as freight direct from England to India, or by special arrange- 
ment carried around on the same British steamer which the owner 
himself takes at Marseilles, Naples or Brindisi. 

There is a great difference in the character of the various lines of 
steamers, and a corresponding difference in their rates of passage. The 
Peninsular & Oriental has for many years been the most celebrated 
line connecting Europe and the East. It carries the mails, is patron- 
ized by many English officials and makes regular, and comparatively 
rapid, time. But it is the most expensive of all, and is not much used 
by missionaries unless they travel second-class. Other well known 
lines are the British India, the Anchor, the Clan, the Rubittino 
(Italian), and the Messageries (French). Of late the Hall Line, run- 
ning between Liverpool, Marseilles and Karachi, has been quite pop- 
ular with people in the Punjab. It gives excellent accommodations, 
makes good speed, carries a fine class of passengers, is available either 
for a continuous sea-journey or trans-continental travel, and has an ar- 
rangement by which travelers, homeward bound, have special railway 
facilities in India. 

During the past fourteen years most of the Punjab missionaries have 
made Bombay their point of entry or departure in going to or from 
the land of the Vedas. A few have gone or come by Calcutta, and still 
more by Karachi, which is growing in popularity. 

The majority of our American missionaries have heretofore taken 
first-class passage on steamers in journeying back and forth between 
this and their field of labor. Many, however, have traveled second- 
class, at least part of the way. Occasionally, as upon a few of the P. 
& O. steamers and the Messageries Line, second-class cabin arrange- 
ments are very good, and, where the company is not too large or 
promiscuous, may be accepted for the sake of economy, in spite of 
close quarters and inferior tone. As a general rule, however, mission- 
aries ought to travel first-class on shipboard, exception being made 
only when they find in a lower class wholesome food and clean berths, 
and when their party is large enough and homogeneous enough to con- 
trol practically matters in which they have a common interest. 

On European and Indian railways, however, the case is different. 
Usually second-class travel by rail is just as comfortable, speedy and 
honorable as that which is called first-class. No objection, whatever, 
can be made to it, except its greater limitation of allowable luggage, 



12 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

and possibly the greater exposure which it brings in India to associa- 
tion with undesirable companions. 

The cost of a missionary's journey from Western Pennsylvania to 
Lahore (or vice versa) — first-class on a ship and second-class by rail in 
a foreign land — is at present rates about $300 or $325, and half that for 
children under twelve years of age — infants being free. This includes 
a moderate outlay for hotel bills, as well as incidental expenses, which 
may be necessary at New York, Liverpool, or other points on the way; 
but it does not include the cost of transmitting extra packages as 
freight. 

Some Mission Boards have friends or business correspondents at 
ports where changes must be made, to help missionaries in getting ahotel 
or securing tickets for their forward journey. Occasionally there is 
some advantage in this arrangement ; but if there is a good business 
person in the party, especially an experienced gentleman, such aid might 
better be dispensed with. It is generally less satisfactory, and often more 
expensive than independent action. Previous knowledge of suitable 
hotels and boarding places, however, is desirable when one enters a 
city for the first time; but this can usually be secured from fellow- 
travelers, local papers or standard guide books. 

Let us now imagine the missionary on his way to our Punjab field. 
He has left his home in the interior, furnished himself in New York or 
Philadelphia with warm wraps for the Atlantic (the stormiest, coldest 
part of his journey), bid good-bye to friends and begun his voyage on 
the broad, deep ocean. If he is a bad sailor, and experience alone can 
decide this point, his soul and stomach will soon be sorely tried, and 
he may wish himself back again at home ; but if of different constitu- 
tion, he will — unless an accident occurs, or the sea is too heavy — con- 
tinue to enjoy the trip until he reaches Queenstown and Liverpool. 
Even if he has not taken congenial companions with him, he will al- 
most certainly find a few among his fellow-passengers ; while interesting 
books, innocent sports and opportunities of doing good, will suffice to 
fill up all the time which he does not care to employ in watching the 
restless waves around him. Reaching port, he gets his baggage 
examined by the custom house officer, and having, of course, no dyna- 
mite, whiskey, or tobacco among his effects, is soon set free, and takes 
a cab for a hotel (kept on the common European plan), or a boarding 
house. After refreshments and a few inquiries made of the female 
clerk, he threads his way to the offices of the different steamship 



ENGLAND AND BEYOND 



13 




SIGHTING LAND. 



companies, and obtains all the information necessary to get the whole 
field of traveling possibilities before him. Then, consulting his associ- 
ates (if he has any), he settles on a 
particular line, steamer, and state- 
room, and secures his passage. This 
fixes the time of his departure on 
the next stage of his journey. 

Should a few days elapse before 
the sailing of his vessel, he and 
his party will run down to London 
(third-class by rail), or to Glasgow 
and Edinburgh, or across to Ire- 
land, or out to Chester and Strat- 
ford-on-Avon, and derive as much 
good as possible from their enforced 
delay. While in Liverpool, too, 
they note the heavy draught-horses, 
tall policemen, splendid docks, and 
substantial buildings of England's great commercial seaport. 

The day of departure having arrived, and letters having been mailed 
for home friends and the mission field, they set sail, and in a few hours 
are making full headway down the Irish sea. Passing Holyhead, 
Small's Lighthouse, and Land's End, they reach the open ocean, and 
press on across the mouth of the British Channel and the Bay of Biscay 
until they sight the coast of Portugal. The chances for stormy and for 
fair weather up to this point are about equal. The Bay, as well as the 
coast of Portugal, has a bad reputation, and occasionally ships have 
been lost in its raging waters — some containing missionaries during the 
last decade — but occasionally it is as smooth and safe as any part of the 
whole route. 

In six or seven days, Gibraltar is reached, and one has an oppor- 
tunity of seeing the classic Pillars of Hercules and that wonderful rock- 
fortress whose possession has entered so largely into Britain's naval and 
imperial strength. Proceeding, the ship sails along the beautiful coast 
of Southern Spain, catches a glimpse, here and there, of Northern 
Africa and the Island of Sicily, passes St. Paul's Bay on the coast of 
Malta, stops to coal at Valetta, and on the fourteenth day out reaches 
Port Said, where arrangements are made to go through the Suez 
Canal — if after dark, with the aid of electric light. 



14 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 




IN THE CANAL. 



Twelve hours afterwards the Red Sea comes into view, and Bible 
students are all alive, noting every object before them which 

might have any connection 
with the departure of the 
Israelites from Egypt. The 
Bitter Lakes, Suez, Jebel Ata- 
kah, the low stretch of coast 
between that range of moun- 
tains and the sea, the Wells of 
Moses, and the distant hills on 
the farther shore — all come in 
for their share of observation 
and remark. 

But the ship does not delay 
long at Port Ibrahim, nor do 
objects of interest cease to 
meet a traveler's attention as 
she proceeds on her voyage. 
On both sides of the Gulf of 
Suez, for its whole length of 
1 20 miles, the yellowish-white shore is visible, while the Sinaitic group 
of mountains, bleak and jagged, form an appropriate background on 
the east. At a point about ninety-five miles from Suez, Mt. Sinai 
comes into view between two peaks, of which the southern is Mt. 
Catherine. This, of course, is earnestly scanned with glasses during 
the short time when it remains in sight. 

Two or three hours afterwards our company enters the main body of 
the Red Sea, passes The Brothers and sails near the Daedalus light- 
house. This is a singular structure rising apparently out of the sea, 
built upon the southern edge of a circular submerged coral reef which 
does not inclose more than a square half-mile of area, but is distinctly 
recognized by the calm, green waters (only three or four feet in depth) 
that cover its surface. On this reef a ship is said to have foundered 
some years ago, plunging down at the very edge in water one hundred 
fathoms deep, while the passengers, by wading out on the unseen, but 
solid, platform beside her, escaped with their lives. 

Several days now elapse during which little land is visible, and 
nothing arises to arrest a traveler's attention except the continually 
increasing heat. Then come into view, successively, Jubal Tur, 



ADEN AND BOMBAY 15 

Jubal Sukr, the constellation of the Southern Cross, Perim (a coaling 
station), the straits of Bab-el- Mandeb and, 101 miles beyond Perim, 
Aden — a bleak, hot, almost rainless peninsula, of volcanic origin, form- 
ing an outpost of the Indian Empire, where a garrison of soldiers con- 
stitutes the chief part of the population. Here, perhaps, the ship may 
be delayed a few hours and her passengers may thus get an opportunity 
of landing and sight-seeing. If so, they will be abundantly repaid. 
If less fortunate, they can at least observe the Somali divers who, 
in spite of sharks, dare to sport by the vessel's side, and crying, " Have 
a dive, have a dive ! " dart downward with incredible quickness and 
certainty after the shillings, or rupees, that are thrown overboard for 
the amusement of the donors and the benefit of the performers. 

Seven days more of sailing across the Arabian Sea, which, except in 
the monsoons, is almost always calm, bring the missionary party to 
Bombay or Karachi — if to the former place, without showing them any- 
thing very remarkable on the way, except perhaps a spouting whale or 
a passing ship — if to the latter place, over a course which also brings 
into view several islands and the southernmost points of the peninsula 
of Arabia. 

In Bombay they take lodgings at the Esplanade, or the Byculla, hotel, 
or possibly at a cheaper and less pretentious place of entertainment. 
Some time elapses before their baggage is examined and forwarded and 
preparations are fully made for the journey northward by rail. Sola 
hats and bedding must be purchased ; for it is not safe, even in winter, 
for a European or American stranger to expose himself much in or- 
dinary headgear to an Indian sun, and on the railways and at many 
hotels, bedding is conspicuously absent. Meanwhile, if a little leisure 
can be found, they secure a look at the splendid buildings on the 
Esplanade (as fine as any other modern structures in India), take a 
drive to Malabar Hill (where the Parsee Towers of Silence are) and, 
from the elevation thus secured, get a fine view of Bombay city and 
its beautiful harbor, go across to the Caves of Elephanta in a little 
boat, call on some of the local missionaries, take a ride on the tram- 
way, which is now run by electricity instead of horse power, or wander 
on foot through the narrow streets of the native part of the city, where 
everything they see or hear is so strange, picturesque and interesting. 

At length their hotel bill (one or two dollars a day) is paid, a good, 
big luncheon basket well filled with eatables procured, and entering a 
shigram^ they are driven to the Colaba station of the Bombay, Baroda 



16 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

and Central Railway. Here they procure second-class tickets at the 
rate of fifty or sixty rupees apiece and are soon comfortably seated in an 
apartment on the train occupied only by themselves, while but a few 
minutes elapse before the engine whistles and their journey of 1324 
miles to Sialkot is begun. 

From eighty to one hundred hours are consumed in this part of their 
trip if they go by way of Delhi and do not stop over at any point on 
the road.* Bleak cliffs, barren deserts, compactly built but sad- 
looking towns, wells used for irrigating purposes, extensive unculti- 
vated plains, monkeys, jackals, deer, antelopes, wild birds, green or 
yellow patches of grain, picturesque mountains, pretty railway stations 
ornamented with garden beds of flowers and running vines, and a great 
variety of other interesting objects, greet the eye and help to lessen the 
tedium of the journey; while at various stopping-places refreshments, 
or regular meals, can be had, as desired. The lack of a knowledge of 
the language of the country does not prevent the newcomers from 
traveling with a good degree of comfort, although it interferes greatly 
with their ability to ask questions and pick up information. 

Should the Sabbath intervene, requiring rest, or the party wish to 
stop and see the wonders of the land, they may break their journey at 
Delhi, Agra or Lahore, and finish it when their object is accomplished. 
Having arrived at their destination, they find some of their brethren, 
who had been apprized by telegraph of their coming, waiting at the 
station to receive them. The welcome which they get is of the most 
cordial character and soon they feel fully installed as regular members 
of the missionary household. 

Should the party land at Calcutta or Karachi, instead of Bombay, 
they would meet with other objects of interest at the port of entry; 
and, on their journey into the interior, which in either case v/ould be 
also wholly by rail, they would pass through different towns and 
scenes ; but on the whole their impression of the country would be 
much the same. Byway of Karachi, however, 173 miles would be 
saved in the sea-journey and 400 miles in the railway ride; while ten 
days on the sea and a few hours on land would be lost were Calcutta 
made the port of entry. 

* They will pass through Surat, Baroda, Ahmedabad, Ajmere, Jeypore, Rewari, 
Delhi, Meerut, Amritsar and Lahore. The newly-opened railway from Rewari, by 
Ilissar and Firozpur, to Lahore shortens the journey 186 miles, but travel by that 
route prevents passengers from seeing Delhi and Amritsar. 



WESTERN AND OTHER ROUTES 



17 




ORIENTAL HARBOR. 



Missionaries may go from America to India by a westward route, 
crossing the Pacific Ocean and traveling byway of Yokohama, Japan, 
and Hong Kong, China. In 
that case they will take passage 
on a vessel of the Occidental and 
Oriental Line at San Francisco 
or on one of the steamers of the 
British Canadian Line at Van- 
couver, but they will change 
lines and steamers at Hong Kong, 
and may stop for a time also, if 
they so desire, in Japan. This 
route brings the traveler to 
Madras or Calcutta, whence he 
makes his way inland as already 
described. The distance b\ 
water from New York to Karachi 
via Liverpool, Gibraltar and 
Suez is 9200 miles. The dis- 
tance from San Francisco to Calcutta, on the eastern side of India, 
is about 9900 miles ; and from Vancouver, 500 miles less. American 
missionaries from the extreme West might therefore very properly go 
by the Pacific route, although at best it is somewhat more tedious 
and expensive ; but Pennsylvanians will find that it requires at least 
twelve days more of travel and sixty dollars more passage money 
than the usual eastern route. However, some might prefer it because 
of its novelty, or because, having traveled the other way, they could 
say, at the end of their trip, that they had journeyed round the world. 

Is it probable that other and better routes to India will soon be 
opened ? 

Several have been suggested during the last thirty years. 

One of these is a railway from Suez across the Arabian Peninsula 
and through Persia to Karachi, a distance of 2400 miles. Another 
is what is called the Euphrates, or the Tigris, route. This con- 
templates a railway from some port on the Mediterranean Sea — say 
Alexandretta — past Aleppo — and down the Euphrates to Hillah, Bas- 
sorah or Koweit, where it could connect with steam navigation for 
Karachi and Bombay ; or from Alexandretta by Aleppo to Diarbekir 
and down the Tigris to Baghdad and thence across the country to 
2 



13 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

Bassorah or Koweit, or from Baghdad direct to Mohammerah and 
along the northeastern shores of the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, 
past Bushir, Bunder Abbas and Sonmiyani to Karachi ; or a road start- 
ing from Constantinople, instead of Alexandretta, passing through the 
midst of Asia Minor to Diarbekir and connecting with the line 
already described. A continuous railway from Alexandretta to Kara- 
chi through Baghdad would be about 2750 miles in length, and could 
be traveled easily in four or five days, while less than a day longer need 
be spent on the Mediterranean in reaching its western terminus than in 
reaching Port Said by the present route. Thus a full week would be 
gained by passengers bound for Karachi. 

But railway connection between Calais and Constantinople* was 
opened up in the fall of 1888, so that passengers can make the journey 
from London to Constantinople in ninety-four hours. Supposing, then, 
that a railway was finished between Constantinople and Karachi, as 
above described, the whole distance from London to Lahore would be 
about 4975 miles, and, at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour, could be 
traversed in eight or ten days, not counting Sabbaths of rest. The 
present route from London, or Liverpool, to Lahore, by way of the sea 
and the Suez Canal to Karachi, is about 6100 miles and occupies in its 
passage a period of about twenty-four days. Thus a Constantinople 
route would shorten the distance from 1000 to 1100 miles and the trip 
fourteen or fifteen days. 

The prospect of the early completion of any of these routes is not 
very bright. Notwithstanding the fact that some surveys connected 
with them have already been made and a good deal of writing done in 
their behalf, and even a few miles of the road through Asia Minor 
have been built, so many obstructions are generally put in the way of 
such enterprises by the Turkish government that we cannot hope for a 
satisfactory conclusion of any projects in this direction for many years 
to come. 

Much more is to be expected from another route, or rather concat- 
enation of routes, namely, that which lies through the Czar's Asiatic 
dominions. 

About seventeen years ago a railway was completed between Poti 
and Batoum on the Black Sea, and Baku on the Caspian Sea. At or 
before this time the European system also reached Vladikavkaz, on 

* Through Basle. Vienna^ Pesth, Belgrade, Nisch and Sujphia. 



THE TRANSCASPIAN ROUTE 19 

the northern side of the Caucasus mountains, 130 miles from Tiflis, an 
important station on the former railway. 

In 1880 the Transcaspian Line was begun, starting at Michaelovsk, 
on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, and since that date this rail- 
way has been pushed forward with great energy into the very heart of 
Asia. It was finished to Kizl Arvat (159 miles from Michaelovsk and 
162 from Uzun Ada) in 1880-81 ;* to Uzun Ada, the present point 
of departure (by a branch line), in 1885 ; to Askabad (136 miles) in 
1885; to Merve (214 miles) July 2, 1886; to Charjui, on the Amu 
Darya f or ancient Oxus river (a distance of 147 miles), Dec. 13, 
1886; to Bokhara (sixty-six miles) in April, 1888; and to Samarkand 
(175 miles), May, 1888. Since then perhaps 100 miles additional rail- 
way, or 1000 miles in all, have been finished, and soon Tashkend (190 
miles from Samarkand) and other important Central-Asian points will 
be bound with iron links to the great Transcaspian system. 

It is proposed to tunnel the Caucasus mountains between Vladikav- 
kaz and Tiflis, as also to build a railway between the former place and 
Petrovsk, an important northern port of the Caspian, and possibly to 
run another road down the western shore of this sea from Petrovsk to 
Baku. It is also, no doubt, the intention of the Russians to extend 
their Transcaspian Line towards Herat and India — the object of this 
movement being partly commercial and partly administrative, or mili- 
tary. Such improvements spring of necessity from that aggressive 
policy by which Russia is striving to extend, as well as conserve, her 
Oriental possessions. 

The British government in India, moreover, has not been idle in 
pushing out her means of easy communication with the North. 
About 1000 miles of railway and other roads were projected as early 
as 1881, and some of the plans then adopted have since been realized 
in fact. Especial mention must be made of the Sind Peshin railway 
and the Khojak tunnel. The former runs through, and (by a different 
branch) around, the Bolan Pass, from Sibi to and beyond Quetta, a 
military outpost in the border of British Baluchistan ; and the latter 
(the tunnel) pierces the Kwaja Amran range of mountains eighty or 
ninety miles further on in the direction of Kandahar. The railway 
was finished to the base of the above-mentioned range in January, 
1887, and the tunnel in August, 1891. 

* Seventeen miles of this part were laid in seventeen days. 
\ The bridge over this river is one mile, 952 ft. long. 



20 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

The distance from the Khojak tunnel to Duschak, the nearest point 
of the present Transcaspian Railway, is about 700 miles. The best 
route lies through Kandahar, Girishk on the Helmund river, Herat, 
and probably along the banks of the Hari Rud and the Tejend rivers 
by Sarrakhs, an important Russian outpost. Everywhere in this 
direction a road would be of comparatively easy construction ; and 
who knows but that in a few years, through the force of military neces- 
sity and imperial ambition, this gap may be traversed by the iron 
horse and made a highway for common travel? 

Whenever such a result is reached, continuous railway communica- 
tion between the Straits of Dover and Calcutta will be interrupted 
only at the Caspian and Black Seas. Reckoning the distance from 
Odessa to Poti (or Batoum) at 1000 miles, and that across the Caspian 
from Baku to Uzun Ada, or Krasnovodsk, at 200 miles, and the 
Straits of Dover at twenty miles, we find that the whole distance 
from London, by Cologne, Berlin, Odessa, Poti, Baku, Uzun Ada, 
Duschak, Sarrakhs, Herat, Kandahar and Quetta, to Lahore would be 
5260 miles, of which as much as 4040 miles would be covered by rail 
when this route is completed. It ought not, therefore, to take more 
than eleven or twelve days (two weeks, counting Sabbaths) to pass be- 
tween the two places, or less than one-half the time which it now 
takes, by way of the Strait of Gibraltar. Should the necessity of 
crossing the Black Sea be removed also, by the completion of railway 
connections west of the Caspian, three or four days additional might 
be saved in making the same journey. 

Hence, to say nothing of a railway along the western side of the 
Caspian across Persia, that is from Petrovsk to the Tigris, or the Per- 
sian Gulf, or of the Siberian railway which, with its connection south 
from Orenburg, Omsk or Semipalatinsk, might open up a northwestern 
route by way of Vladivostok on the Pacific Ocean, nothing is more 
likely than that some of the present foreign missionaries of India 
will, before they die, have the pleasure of going to and from their 
fields of labor in less than half the time which it now takes and with 
half the seasickness which they now experience. 




CHAPTER II 

OUTSIDE POLITICAL CONDITIONS 

China and Baluchistan — Burmese War — Border Warfare — Manipur Rebellion — 
The Mahdi — Dhulip Singh — Russia's Progress in Asia — English Fear of Russia 
— Afghanistan a Buffer — What we Dreaded Most. 

AVING accompanied the missionaries to their field of labor 
in the Punjab, let us observe their surroundings and the 
conditions under which they have been required to work. 
Beginning with the outside circle we note various polit- 
ical neighbors who have somewhat disturbed the peace of the country 
where their Mission is established. 

Of China little need be said, as the Himalaya Mountains form an 
almost impassable barrier, separating Thibet, her nearest tributary 
province, from the peninsula of India; and (during the past fourteen 
years) scarcely the shadow of a quarrel has arisen between that country 
and Great Britain. 

Similar remarks may be made of Siam, Anam, Kafiristan and 
Baluchistan, although the last-named country was years ago somewhat 
troublesome and part of its territory was then brought within the 
"sphere of British influence." 

The case of Upper Burma has been somewhat different. There a 
war arose between King Thebaw and the Indian Viceroy in the fall 
of 1885 which ended in the deposition of the former and the complete 
annexation of his dominions to British India. This war, however, 
although the most important carried on by our rulers within the past 
fourteen years, was comparatively distant from the Punjab and excited 
no special interest there among either Hindus or Muhammadans, 
unless they were soldiers or the friends of soldiers. Hence it pro- 
duced scarcely a ripple in the current of our missionary work or life. 

Several other contests occurred between the Government of India 
and border tribes: for instance, that of the Zhob Valley in 1884, the 

(21) 



■I'l 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



Sikkim Expedition in 1888, the two Black Mountain wars in the fall 
of 1888 and in 1891, the Lushai Uprisings in 1889 and 1892, the 
Kohat war in 1891 and a skirmish with some Afghan tribes in the fall 
of 1894. But these contests hardly rose above the dignity of 
skirmishes and, although nearer, gave us little more anxiety than did 
the Burmese campaign. 

The rebellion in Manipur, a native state on the borders of Assam, 
which occurred in March, 1891, and led to the assassination of Mr. 
Quinton, the Chief Commissioner of Assam, and the execution of 
several high native officials, as well as to the deposition and banishment 
of the king, gave us a serious, though temporary, shock — partly, how- 
ever, because it was simultaneous with rebellious demonstrations in 

Calcutta, Benares and other 
places, and revealed in a striking 
manner the fact that the basis of 
England's imperial rule in the 
East possessed elements of insta- 
bility. 

The rise of the so-called 
Mahdi in Africa and his success 
in maintaining his position there, 
together with the prospect of 
his crossing over the Red Sea 
into Arabia and making a tri- 
umphant march, as the promised 
messenger of God, to Persia, 



Afghanistan and India, excited 
greatly the imagination of the 
Muhammadans of our neigh- 
borhood in 1884 and made us 
Christians glad when the tide 
of battle turned against him and 
he disappeared from view. 

The threatened coming of the 
Maharaja Dhulip Singh to India as the avowed head and king of the 
Sikh nation, in the spring of 1886, was doubtless disturbing in its 
effects upon the native population of the Punjab and a cause of fear 
to the government. But his detention at Aden and return to Europe 




MAHARAJA DHULIP SINGH IN EARLY 
MANHOOD. 



RUSSIA'S PROGRESS IN ASIA 23 

effectually quenched all the incipient fires of an uprising among the 
people, if there were any, and gave us peace. 

But the outside movement which more than any other disturbed In- 
dia during the period under review was Russia's constant advance in 
that direction — with the intention, it was supposed, of driving out the 
English from Hindustan and extending her own dominions to the Bay 
of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. 

Russia's progress in Asia was begun by Yarmak in the latter part of 
the sixteenth century and, continuing at intervals ever since, has 
proved to be one of the most wonderful facts and factors of modern 
history. Tomsk was founded in 1604; the sea of Ochotsk reached in 
1639; Irkutsk founded in 1661 ; the country between the Ural Moun- 
tains and the Baikal lake was conquered in 1725; the east coast of 
Siberia reached in 1738; and the complete conquest of that region 
secured in i860 — through the cession by China of the left bank of the 
Amoor river and as much of the country southward as lies between 
its Asuri branch and the Pacific coast. Recently (in 1895) rights in 
Corea have been granted to Russia by both China and Japan, as the 
result of the war between these two countries. Meanwhile, too, prog- 
ress had been made in the acquisition of the Caucasus and of Trans- 
Caucasia, although the full possession of this country was not entirely 
obtained until about the year 1871. Turkestan also had for years felt 
the encroachments of this aggressive power and was now destined to 
receive further attention. Orenburg was founded in 1742; Ashurada 
was seized in 1841 ; the left bank of the Amu river was conquered in 
1845; Chemkend was taken in 1864 and Tashkend the next year; 
half of Khokand was annexed in 1867 ; in 1868 the Russians captured 
Samarkand and completely crushed the power of the Emir of 
Bokhara ; Krasnovodsk, on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, was 
occupied in 1869 and Michaelovsk founded in 1870; in 1871 the 
neighboring portion of the Turkoman region as far as Kizl Arvat was 
annexed ; in June, 1873, Khiva fell and was brought into subjection 
to the Czar; in 1876 the remaining half of Khokand was annexed ; in 
1881 the Turkomans were conquered by Skobeleff at Geok Tepe, and 
soon after Merve became Russian. Less than three years ago also the 
Czar sent his explorers and soldiers into the heart of the Pamirs, where 
China and Afghanistan have both been resisting his claims, and where 
England, as a friend of the latter, has stood ready to oppose them. 

And never has Russia been compelled to recede permanently from 



24 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

any advance which she has ever made. Her retreats in. the Caucasus 
before its native chiefs and the power of Persia, and in the East under 
Chinese pressure, have always been temporary in their character. 
She knows well how to place her garrisons and preserve her conquests. 
We have already seen her activity in pushing out railways beyond the 
Black Sea and the Caspian, by means of which she can at pleasure 
concentrate her forces at any requisite point and successfully quell any 
threatening revolt. See, too, how the great Siberian railway, which 
was projected in 1890, is being rapidly thrown across Asia, with the 
prospect of its being completed by the beginning of the next century, 
or shortly after, if not before. 

As announced by Peter the Great and his successors, the object of 
this forward movement is the civilization of that part of the world. 
And it must be admitted that such a result has to some extent taken 
place. Wherever the Russian flag goes, there Eastern slavery at once 
ceases to live, and those cruel, barbarous methods of government 
which everywhere exist among Central-Asiatic tribes are replaced by a 
system more orderly, just and humane. Safety also being universally 
secured by Russian arms, agriculture, manufactures and trade have 
received a mighty stimulus and are adding rapidly to the wealth and 
the happiness of the people. The Russians, moreover, and especially 
the Cossacks, can enter into the feelings of conquered Orientals more 
fully than persons of English blood, can draw them into closer rela- 
tion to themselves and bring them up more rapidly to their own stand- 
ard of civilization. 

Benevolence, however, cannot be admitted to be the only, or even 
the chief, motive which actuates the Russian in his advancing course. 
No doubt he is ambitious also and is striving with all his might to 
secure the largest and most powerful empire on the face of the earth. 
Especially is he jealous of Great Britain and China, his most formid- 
able rivals. The former particularly is the object of his constant envy 
and opposition. Both as an ally of the Sultan and the ruler of a 
populous Asiatic empire, Queen Victoria stands much in the way of 
the accomplishment of his purposes. Nor is the threat of invading 
India always a stratagem intended simply to weaken her and her ally's 
hold upon the Dardanelles and hasten his own conquest of Constanti- 
nople and his acquisition of the outlet of the Black Sea. Without 
doubt he has designs upon India itself and, in spite of the peaceful 
character of such Czars as the late Alexander, hopes eventually to add 



FEARS OF INVASION 25 

it as one of the brightest of the world's gems to his sovereign's 
crown. 

And well do the English understand this object. Nothing haunts 
an Anglo-Indian more than the fear of an invasion from " the king 
of the north." Fitfully, too, has he taken measures to prevent such 
a catastrophe. In 1869 a zone was sought which, being occupied by 
a friendly power and being recognized at the same time by Russia as 
non-Russian, might act as a buffer to ward off the blows of his 
advancing rival. This was found in Afghanistan, which moreover — 
to make the arrangement doubly sure — was taken into still closer 
friendship with England than it had been before and heavily subsi- 
dized. But unfortunately, even with a change of Afghan rulers, even 
after the too independent Shere AH gave place to Yakub Khan and 
the unfaithful Yakub Khan was supplanted by the present Amir, 
Abdurrahman, this friendship never became very cordial ; and, what 
was worse still, the northern boundary of Afghanistan remained in the 
cloudy, unsettled condition in which it had been for years. Hence it 
became necessary, not only to guard against the intrigues of Russia 
and Afghanistan, but also to secure a boundary between them south of 
which the former could not come. This led to the appointment in 
1884 of what is called the Delimitation Commission. But the labors 
of this Commission did not really begin until 1885, when, starting at 
Sarrakhs and working eastward, it erected boundary pillars as far as 
the Pamirs. 

The first four years of the period under special review were there- 
fore years of anxiety for us. This reached its climax in the spring of 
1885, when the " incident at Penjdeh," as it is called — that is, a 
quarrel and a skirmish between the Russian and Afghan forces — 
occurred, and fears were entertained that war between the two great 
contending powers had already begun. All through the winter of 
1884-85 great military activity was displayed in India. Preparations 
were made for forwarding troops. Soldiers were subjected to constant 
drill. Sham battles (to give experience) were fought near the various 
cantonments. The writer's own residence at Sialkot was often in the 
centre of such contests and once, at least, made the figurative object 
of attack. 

A similar but less violent scare also occurred in the spring of 1887. 

What we missionaries dreaded most was the confusion which would 
inevitably arise in the course of a contest for supremacy. 







1 - § m ' : '■ 




MOUNTAINEERS IN ACTION. 



(26) 



RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH RULE COMPARED 



It mattered comparatively little which kingdom exercised authority 
over us. Both are nominally Christian governments and, as Ameri- 
cans, we might hope for fair treatment even from Russia, which, in 
political matters at least, has always been a friendly power. True, we 
greatly preferred the English as our rulers. They are our own flesh 
and blood ; they represent a higher civilization ; they give us a strong, 
just, peaceful rule ; they are more tolerant of non-conformists and 
dissenters than Russians are ; they march in the forefront of the 
world's progress ; they furnish us more aid and sympathy in our 
special work than the Czar could be expected to give. The latter 
might treat us as he does the Stundists. 

But it was the time of invasion, conflict and possible change which 
after all we most feared. From time immemorial the Punjab has been 
the highway for invading forces and the great battle-ground for con- 
tending armies. Here Aryan Hindus, Scythians, Greeks, Persians, 
Mongols, and various Muhammadan dynasties — even the English them- 
selves — have successively met their opponents and had many of their 
fiercest and most decisive contests. Knowing all this, our imagination 
dwelt somewhat on the possibilities of the future. The march and 
countermarch of armies past our doors, the raids of guerilla bands and 
the slaughter of regular engagements, the temporary suspension of 
civil law, the incoming of fierce Cossacks, reckless Turkomans and 
fanatical Afghans, the uncertainty as to which side might be taken by 
the natives around us, these were the things of which we most thought 
and talked, and the things which we most dreaded. 

Happily we were not called upon to pass through such an experience. 
God in His providence continued to keep us under British rule and 
Russia is still far away. 

But why, may we not ask in concluding this section, should not 
these two great powers come to some amicable arrangement by which 
Afghanistan would be divided between them, their boundaries made 
contiguous, and the terrible (though able) despotism of such rulers as 
Abdurrahman brought to an end ? How much would the world be 
a gainer thereby ! 




CHAPTER III 

BRITISH RULE IN INDIA 

The Machine, Civil and Military — The Viceroys : Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne 
and Elgin — The Lieut.-Governors of the Punjab — Object of British Rule in 
India — How it Helps and How it Obstructs Mission Work. 

HAT is the character of British Rule in India, and how does 
it affect our mission work? 

The Government of India is a vast and complicated, but 
smoothly working, machine, controlled in all its departments 
— legislative, executive and judicial — by a single man called a Viceroy 
and Governor-General, who is changed every four or five years at the 
will of the British Government, and is subject in a large degree to the 
will of the Secretary of State for India, who resides in London, is as- 
sisted by a Council of retired Anglo-Indians, and represents the reign- 
ing ministry, which in turn is influenced to some extent by the chang- 
ing moods of Parliament and the people of Great Britain. 

Within the limits of native, feudatory states, of which there are some 
eight hundred altogether — embracing three-fifths of the entire territory 
and three-thirteenths of the entire population — this government gives 
large liberty to hereditary princes in the management of their own do- 
minions; but they can have no independent foreign policy and even 
their internal administration is subject to the inspection and the advice 
of a British political officer, called the Resident. 

The Governors of Bombay and Madras, who are sent out from Eng- 
land, as the Viceroy himself is, on account of their rank and political 
prominence, have also extensive powers of their own and, in questions 
not imperial, communicate directly with the Home Government, and 
not through the Viceroy. 

Other British territory, however, is ruled directly by the Governor- 
General and his assistants — as also is the whole territory in regard to 
matters of an imperial nature. 
(28) 



THE RULERS OF INDIA 29 

Aid in this is derived first, from Committees — Viceregal, District 
and Municipal ; secondly, from the Civil Service, or the Staff of 
Administration ; and thirdly, from the Military Department. 

The members of the Viceregal Council are appointed for ten years. 
It consists for ordinary purposes of six persons selected by the Crown. 
These are the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, a legal mem- 
ber, a financier, a man skilled in engineering and two experienced 
members of the Civil Service. For purposes of legislation twelve more 
persons are added on the nomination of the Viceroy, of whom one- 
half must be non-official persons and of whom some are always natives. 
But in certain cases the Governor-General can overrule the decisions 
of this Council. District and Municipal Committees have only a 
limited amount of local power. 

The Administration Staff consists of four sections : First, the Cove- 
nanted Civil Service, which is composed of persons appointed after 
competitive examination in England, who go out to India under 
specially favorable rules. Their number is somewhat less than one 
thousand altogether. These are divided between the executive and the 
judicial departments — the highest prize of the former being a Lieut. - 
Governorship and of the latter a Judgeship in the High Court. About 
two-thirds are attached to what is called the Bengal Civil Service, and 
the rest in equal proportions to the Bombay and the Madras Services. 
Of the Bengal Civil Service about one- third belong to Bengal proper, 
one-third to the Northwest Provinces and Oude, and one-tenth to 
the Punjab, while the remainder are distributed to Burma, Assam and 
other points. Secondly, the Statutory Civil Service which is selected 
from among the natives. Many of its appointments are in the gift of 
Local Governments. Thirdly, Military officers of the Staff Corps in 
civil employ. Fourthly, a large class of uncovenanted servants of 
different grades, who may be either Europeans or natives.* The 
number of first-class appointments eligible to natives is constantly in- 
creasing. These various officers, however appointed, rise through 
merit or seniority until they have readied a certain period of life or 
service, when the most of them are allowed to retire on a pension 
which (as well as their graded salary) is regulated by fixed rules. 

Under the Viceroy, next in order, come the Governors, Lieutenant- 
Governors and Chief Commissioners, who (with differing powers) 

*See HazelVs Annual for 1893. 



30 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

stand at the head of Provincial Governments* and are aided by 
Commissioners, Judges, Deputy Commissioners, Assistant Commis- 
sioners, Police Magistrates and other officers, to whom labor, 
according to its locality, nature and importance, is distributed, and 
through whom appeals are conducted and the whole machinery 
worked. 

The highest officer of the Punjab, where we labored, has the rank 
of a Lieutenant-Governor. Under him are, not only a High Court 
and. Heads of Administration, residing at Lahore, but also, according 
to the reorganization effected in 1884, six Commissioners of Divisions 
and thirty-one Deputy Commissioners — besides a host of subordinates. 
Deputy Commissioners usually have charge of separate Districts and 
are the officers with whom we missionaries have had most to do. 
They possess a measure of judicial authority, as well as executive con- 
trol; and through them also most new movements originate. 

In the entire civil service of India (covenanted and uncovenanted) 
there are perhaps 3000 persons whose salaries, aside from allowances, 
vary from 125 to 8333 f rupees a month, that is (estimating according 
to the present value of the rupee), from about 40 to 2500 dollars. 
But the number of subordinate officers and clerks in government employ 
runs up to tens of thousands. 

Supporting this civil service is a military department which can be 
employed to preserve peace, or enforce obedience, when necessary. 
This consists of a Commander-in-chief,;); with headquarters at the seat 
of General Government, a regular army of about 220,000 soldiers (one- 
third of whom are European), a volunteer force (mostly European and 
Eurasian) of 20,000 or 25,000 men, and a drilled police organization 
of 200,000 natives, officered largely by Europeans — to say nothing 
of the armies of native princes which, on occasion, have been offered 

* Madras and Bombay, the territories of the two Governors, are called Presiden- 
cies. 

f This amount is given to Lieut. -Governors ; the Governors of Madras and 
Bombay get 10,000 rupees per mensem ; the Viceroy, 20,833 P er mensem ; or, at 
present rates of exchange, nearly twice as much as the President of the United 
States. 

J Three persons have successively occupied the position of Commander-in-chief in 
the Indian army during the past fourteen years — Sir Donald Stewart, down to the 
fall of 1885 ; Sir Frederick Roberts, from that time down to the spring of 1893, and 
Sir George White ever since. 



LORDS LYTTON AND RIPON 31 

to defend the empire from external attacks. These various forces are 
stationed at different points throughout the country so that they can 
be readily used in any quarter in any given emergency. The Punjab 
is well stocked with soldiers on account of its being a border Prov- 
ince, and because it lies on the direct route to and from Central 
Asia. In our own field cantonments are located at Jhelum, Sialkot 
and Rawal Pindi — the last-named said to be the largest within the 
bounds of the British Empire. 

During the period of which I am specially writing several viceregal 
changes have taken place. Lord Lytton, who went to India in 1876, 
was succeeded, in April, 1880, by the Marquis of Ripon ; and the 
latter, January 13, 1885, by the Earl of Dufferin, whose term ended 
December 13, 1888. Then came the Marquis of Lansdowne, who 
gave place to Earl Elgin, January 27, 1894; while the latter was fol- 
lowed by Mr. Curzon in January, 1899. 

Politically Lord Lytton was a Tory, and of his private character 
(whether justly or not) men did not speak well. Naturally, therefore, 
our mission cause was not much aided by his presence. 

Lord Ripon was a Roman Catholic pervert from Anglicanism and 
in politics an advanced Liberal — a strange combination. It cannot 
be said, however, that he allowed his religious convictions to affect his 
public acts, except perhaps that he took special pleasure in any " func- 
tions " which tended to honor and establish his own church, and also 
by his example and liberality gave it substantial aid. His wife is said 
to have been a decided Protestant of the Church of England type. 
Lord Ripon's administration lias been much praised in certain quar- 
ters from a political point of view; but, in the opinion of most non- 
partisans, improperly. Two very serious defects were exhibited in his 
course — unwise liberalism and a disposition (towards the last at least) 
to play the demagogue. Having an eye to the approval of his own party 
in England, he endeavored to carry out its principles in the government 
of India faster than the people were prepared to put them in practice, and 
also by injudicious speeches excited hopes in the minds of the turbulent 
and disloyal natives which could not possibly be gratified. Hence, 
while some of his measures were good and may lead eventually to the 
safe exercise of more republican methods, his reign was decidedly 
unsettling in its character and tended to pit foreigners and natives 
against each other in unhappy conflict. Never during our whole stay 
in India was there so much of the spirit of unrest, strife and fear of 
internal commotion as during the time when what is called the Ilbert 



32 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

Bill was under discussion ; that is, from February 2, 1883, when it was 
introduced into the Council, to January 25, 1884, when it was passed. 
This bill, as first prepared, proposed to give a large number of native 
magistrates, even in outlying districts, that jurisdiction over Euro- 
peans which had previously been exercised only by European officials. 
As finally adopted it was shorn of its most obnoxious features, but the 
feeling aroused by this as well as other measures and acts of Lord Ripon 
never became fully allayed while he remained in power. 

Lord DurTerin's coming, however, seemed like oil poured upon the 
troubled waters. His great reputation as an able and experienced ser- 
vant of the crown, his thorough acquaintance with Oriental character 
and Russian aggression, his moderate political views as a Liberal 
Unionist, and his smooth and cautious methods as a tried diplomatist, 
excited expectations which were not doomed to disappointment. 
Without rudely and rashly discarding his predecessor's measures, he. 
yet settled down to that quiet, firm, straightforward policy which the 
country so much needed, and in the place of doubt, confusion and 
bitterness produced confidence and internal peace. Perhaps he was 
too reticent and diplomatic in his public utterances. On such occasions 
he had the art of pleasing everybody present, without revealing any- 
thing, in an almost unsurpassed degree. But such a manner involved 
the loss of that educating influence which comes from greater frank- 
ness. Better this, however, than Lord Ripon's exciting harangues. 

Lord DurTerin's aggressive movements were reserved for his foreign 
policy. It was under him that the Amir of Afghanistan was brought 
to more satisfactory terms, the work of boundary delimitation pushed 
forward to a conclusion, and Upper Burma annexed to the Indian 
Empire. 

Religiously Lord Dufferin made little impression on the country ; nor, 
apart from the usual trend of a settled governmental policy, did he 
affect our mission work. He was too much of a diplomatist to show 
any partiality even for his own faith; nor did any of his public sayings 
or doings indicate that he took a very deep interest in the spiritual wel- 
fare of India's perishing millions. 

Lord Lansdowne, a Liberal Unionist also, followed largely in the 
footsteps of his predecessor — although in a more open and less mysteri- 
ous way. The most signal disturbance of his administration was the 
Manipur rebellion ; but this occurred in a frontier state. Gener- 
ally speaking, India proper was peaceful and happy during his 



LORD LANSDOWNE 



m 



viceroyalty, while movements tending to strengthen the empire, 
internally and externally, went on without interruption. Towards 
the last, a reorganization of 
the Viceregal Council was ef- 
fected ; and under Gladstone's 
regime advancement (wise or 
unwise) was made in the exten- 
sion of the privilege of suffrage 
and the bestowal of the right of 
self-government upon the people. 

The greatest stain upon his ad- 
ministration was undoubtedly his 
support of the Contagious Dis- 
eases Acts, the Opium trade, and 
the Excise Laws. But these evils 
are of older date, and were up- 
held by previous Viceroys, just 
as they have all along had their 
roots also in the home govern- 
ment. Lansdowne's reign, how- 
ever, attained an unenviable 
prominence in the persistent 
effort which he and his assistants 

made to retain them, and that, too, in the face of parliamentary acts 
and the righteous indignation of a Christian public. 

Lord Elgin, the successor of Lord Lansdowne on the viceregal 
throne of India, was the third choice of the Gladstonian government 
for that position, Sir Henry Norman and Lord Cromer having pre- 
viously declined it. His father held the same post thirty years pre- 
viously, and, having died in India, lies buried at Dharmsala. The present 
Lord Elgin was not prominent in home politics, and has never given 
evidence of high administrative ability; but he is said to make on the 
whole a very good Viceroy. According to the Simla Times he is per- 
sonally a teetotaler, strict in his views with regard to balls, parties, and 
the gaieties of life. But officially, as far as the opium traffic and other 
kindred evils are concerned, he appears to walk in the way of his pred- 
ecessors, and upholds the policy which from a moral point of view has 
proved to be such a curse to the country and to the entire East. 

Of Lieut. -Governors we have had four in the Punjab since the period 
3 




LORD LANSDOWNE. 



34 LIFE AND WORK IN" INDIA 

began of which we are specially writing — Sir Robert Edgerton, who 
served from April 2, 1877, until April 2, 1882 ; Sir Charles Aitchison, 
who followed him and ended his term April 2, 1887; Sir James Lyall, 
who served from that date until April 2, 1892; and Sir Dennis Fitz- 
patrick, after whom came Mr. Mack worth Young, in 1897. 

Of all these high officials Sii Charles Aitchison, more than any other, 
impressed his own ideas' upon the government of the Province. This, 
too, was specially manifest in the work of education and in the applica- 
tion of the principle of local self-government. He was recognized as 
an able ruler, with liberal ideas. His character and his religious views 
also were of a high order. He was always ready to help missions, as 
far as the law would allow, by expressions of sympathy and substantial 
gifts. He was a Scotch Presbyterian. 

Sir James L'yall's administration was less vigorous and less in sym- 
pathy with the higher movements which were going on around him. 
He was too much inclined to condone the bad deeds of high officials, 
and censure the good deeds of those who were active Christians. It 
was by him that a noted profligate judge, condemned both by public 
opinion and judicial decision, was treated tenderly and allowed to con- 
tinue in office — a disgrace to the sacred ermine. And it was during his 
administration that another member of the Civil Service (Mr. Drysdale, a 
nephew of Dr. Duff and a son-in-law of Dr. Morrison) was dismissed from 
government employ for his activity in disseminating Bible truth. Yet 
even Sir James Lyall could not help aiding mission schools and hospitals 
when such aid came clearly within the line of a pronounced government 
policy. 

Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick is a Roman Catholic, and has the reputation 
of being very unpopular with his fellow-officials ; but as far as missions 
are concerned he has proved to be neither a help nor a hindrance. 

As a matter of fact, it cannot be denied that British Rule in India 
was acquired and is maintained by force, and that the primary objects 
leading to its establishment and continuance have been commercial prog- 
ress, personal profit, and imperial aggrandizement. Hence a strong, 
vigilant government has been kept up, such a government as will secure 
peace and safety, develop industry, and supply honorable places for 
Britain's sons. 

But beyond this it also sets before itself the civilization and elevation 
of the natives of India, and their preparation for such freedom as is 
exercised by the people of England themselves in their own land. In 



HOW BRITISH RULE AIDS MISSIONS 35 

private addresses and communications, moreover, Anglo-Indian officials 
have gone so far as to assert that the Christianization of India also was 
one of the great objects of their occupation of the land, or rather an ob- 
ject without whose accomplishment they could not hope to attain the 
ends officially set before them, secure the true welfare of the people and 
justify their presence in the country. 

Hence British Rule is in many ways helpful to mission work in India. 
It secures almost perfect safety for the missionary wherever he may go 
throughout the length and breadth of the land. It may be an exaggera- 
tion to say, as some have said, that a white lady may travel from one end 
of the peninsula to the other, on highway or byway, with as little fear 
of molestation as she can in England or America; but such a statement 
in regard to many parts of the country approaches very near to the 
truth. British authority also patrols the people so well as to suppress 
in large measure those internal feuds and conflicts which were formerly 
common in the country and which, if now existent, would be highly 
unfavorable to the propagation of Scripture truth. It secures to every 
individual the right to worship God according to the dictates of his own 
conscience — criminal acts excepted — and hence reduces religious perse- 
cution for Christian profession to the smallest possible degree. It 
abolishes, or condemns, from time to time, old laws and practices, even 
if they are based on Hindu Shastras, which are opposed to human rights 
and Christian morals. For instance, it has placed among criminal or 
unlawful acts widow-burning (1829), infanticide, exposure of children, 
disinheritance of Christian converts (1832 and 1850), prohibition of the 
marriage of widows (1856), superstitious intimidation, exemption of 
Brahmans from capital punishment (181 7), slavery (1848), and thedenial 
of all rights, privileges and humanities to outcastes. It exhibits in its 
administration a remarkable degree of fairness, impartiality and justice ; 
and, as far as Europeans or high-grade native officials are concerned, 
presents such an ideal of truthfulness, honesty, incorruptibility and 
paternal regard for the welfare of the community as to commend the 
religion with which it is connected and from which it springs to the 
admiration of the people. 

British Rule also provides telegraphic and postal arrangements of a 
high order, excellent means of travel by rail, palanquin, stage and 
horse, good highways, rest-houses and beasts of burden, and (in 
important stations) first-class physicians — all of which may be util- 



36 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

ized by a missionary to his own advantage and the advantage of his 
calling. 

It opens up the way to mission work, too, by its system of schools 
and colleges and its efforts to diffuse such knowledge as may dispel 
superstition, undermine false faiths and prepare the people for an intel- 
ligent and comparatively unprejudiced reception of the Gospel. As 
foreign missionaries are members of the ruling race and persons of 
high occupation, it ensures them also such political rights and social 
standing as increase greatly their prestige and make them respected by 
all classes of the community. 

It provides liberally for the religious wants of its Christian soldiers 
and employees,* builds beautiful churches in prominent places f and, 
through its chaplaincies % and spiritually-minded adherents, helps to 
give Christianity a name and an influence in that populous land. 

It aids Missions to get a foothold and maintain their civil rights in 
Native States, as was the case ten years ago (1884-85) in Indore. It 
sustains a Mission's right to hold property and exempts its funds, and 
sometimes its buildings, from special taxation. It aids Missions 
directly by donations of real estate (or their equivalent in money) and 
by grants-in-aid to their schools, dispensaries, hospitals, orphanages, 
leper asylums and any other institutions they may establish which are 
largely benevolent and civilizing in their character and thus can be 
considered proper objects of government help. 

It calls on missionaries at times for their assistance in important 
investigations and in the preparation of laws which may be suited to 
the people's wants. It bears testimony in its official reports to the 
importance and the excellence of any work, done by Missions or mis- 
sionaries, which has been particularly remarkable for its elevating and 
beneficent influence. And finally, through the semi-official and 
unofficial remarks of its agents, it often virtually commends even the 
distinctive work of a missionary in Christianizing the country and dis- 
seminating Gospel truth. As an instance of the last-named benefit 

* At a total cost of about twenty-two lakhs of rupees (or $800,000) — so says the 
Civil and Military Gazette of Jan. I, 1 889. Yet it has no established church, 
strictly so called. 

f 617 stations and out-stations. 

% 241 regular; 100 aided; total 341. Of these 215 are Church of England, 
that is, Episcopalian; 76, Roman Catholic; 22, Presbyterian; and 2%, Wesleyan or 
non-conformist. — Sir Theodore Hope in the London Times of Feb. 21, 1893. 



HOW THE GOVERNMENT RETARDS MISSIONS 3? 

and in confirmation of much that has just been written may be quoted 
what Sir Charles Elliott, the Lieut. -Governor of Bengal, is reported 
to have said at a Christian meeting in Darjeeling, May 13, 1892. 
"As the head of the Bengal government," he remarked, "I feel that 
the missionaries are, so to speak, an unrecognized and unofficial 
branch of the great movement in which we are all engaged, and which 
alone justifies our presence in the country. They occupy a field 
which the officers of the government are unable to take up. In 
religious matters we have to treat all alike, and to show no more con- 
sideration for one faith than for another ; and yet we know right well 
that the only hope for the realization of our dream, and for the eleva- 
tion and development of the people, lies in the evangelization of 
India, and we know that the people who are carrying on this work are 
the missionaries. It is they who are filling up what is deficient in the 
efforts of the government, by devoting their lives and their labors to 
bringing the people of India to the knowledge of Christ." 

But there is another side to this picture. British Rule has not 
always been helpful to the cause of Christ in India, and in some 
respects has been positively injurious. 

The very fact that Christianity in a general sense is the religion of 
the governing power and receives civil protection and commendation 
gives it a prestige with some aspiring people that works unfavorably in 
the production of false and insincere converts; while on the other 
hand this same fact brings the Gospel into bad odor with a different 
class of persons (those who hate the government) and prejudices them 
against it. True, American missionaries have an advantage over Brit- 
ish missionaries in reference to this matter, because they can disclaim 
all connection whatever with the government and the government's 
representatives, receiving as they do their commission and their sup- 
port from an alien land and a voluntary church. But this does not 
detract greatly from the force of the statement which has just been 
made. 

Again, that type of Christianity which is supported by the Indian 
government and exhibited by its agents is often so low in its tone and 
so deficient as a model, that earnest, evangelical laborers are hindered 
rather than helped by its presence. 

Owing also to the ease with which false testimony can be secured, 
justice often miscarries and numbers of innocent people are heavily 
fined or thrown into prison ; while the importance given to a written 



38 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

contract in judicial contests frequently becomes the means of increas- 
ing the native money-lender's usurious oppression and extortion. In 
this way that ideal of impartial fairness and complete justice which 
naturally belongs to British Rule, and which has been referred to as 
an important means of recommending that Christianity which Britons 
profess, often becomes greatly obscured and loses its attractive power 
— or rather, becomes repellent in its influence. 

The neutral position which, as Sir Charles Elliott says, government 
must assume in dealing officially with different religions, is itself mis- 
understood by many natives and attributed more to a lack of faith in 
Christianity than to the principle of evenhanded justice ; while the 
gift in various ways of vastly more money, or its equivalent, for the 
support of native faiths than is given for the support of the Gospel, 
produces the same, if not a worse, effect. 

As a matter of fact, too, the government does not allow even as 
much freedom to its Christian servants, or others, in propagating their 
religious tenets as it does to Hindus and Muhammadans. How it 
acted in the case of Mr. Drysdale has already been mentioned. Ref- 
erence might also be made to the manner in which it discriminated 
against the Salvation Army in Bombay, by stopping their street pro- 
cessions and imprisoning some of their officers in the year 1883 — thus 
denying rights to these people which were freely granted to the propa- 
gators of all other religions. 

And what shall we say of its abolition of the law of the Sabbath 
during Lord Lytton's administration and its constant violation of the 
command to keep God's day holy, especially in the management of its 
railways and public works, or of those other foul blots on government 
morals: its opium trade, its excise system and its "regulation" of 
the social evil. Hardly anything in all the annals of civilized or semi- 
civilized nations exceeds the disgraceful wickedness of its persistance 
(for financial reasons alone) in raising and selling * a drug like opium, 
which destroys physically and morally so many thousands — yes, we 
may truthfully say, so many millions — of the human race, and doing 
so, too, not only among its own people, but also among 
people of other lands ; and more than this, forcing it at the point of 

* The production of opium has been a government monopoly for more than a hun- 
dred years. Cultivators undertake to deliver the whole product at a contract price 
to government agents, who dispose of it monthly at auction, to exporters, or issue it 
to the excise department for consumption in India. 



GREAT PUBLIC EVILS 39 

the sword into the markets of unwilling nations (especially China), 
and thus insuring their increased demoralization. Less evil, it may be, 
is the system by which it derives a revenue from the manufacture and 
the sale of intoxicating liquor as a beverage, but only because it is 
narrower in its range, less compulsory in its character, and less sweep- 
ing in its effects. While more disgusting than either is the third evil 
mentioned — the provision which, under the plea of protecting the sol- 
diers from contagious diseases, it makes (or has made) for the safe 
gratification of their depraved lusts ; and that, too, in the face of over- 
whelming opposition from the Christian people of England and even 
the adverse action of Parliament itself. 

In view of all these things it can be easily imagined how much in 
the government missionaries have to contend against, or explain away, 
in order that they may secure for the Gospel, among the natives of 
India, an unprejudiced hearing and unimpeded power. 

Still, taking all in all, we are thankful that our political situation is 
as good as it is. In no heathen country throughout the world, per- 
haps, can better civil conditions be found for the spread of divine 
truth. We know of no other government which we would import into 
India and take in exchange for a British Viceroyalty. 





CHAPTER IV 

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 

The Monsoons — The Hot Season — ■The Rains — Hail, Dust Storms and Earthquakes. 

EW things modify mission work in India more than the 
character of its climate. Our own field lies between the 
thirtieth and the thirty-fourth degree of north latitude 
and is mostly plains. These plains are from 500 to 1100 
feet above the level of the sea. On the northeast side are the Hima- 
laya Mountains, which rise in successive ranges to the region of 
perpetual snow. In Jhelum the Salt Range also breaks the monotony 
of the general level and throws up peaks to the height of 3000 feet. 

There being no barrier between us and the seacoast, the winds which 
sweep across the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea every summer in 
their northeastern flight and lick up and carry forward great quantities 
of moisture in their progress, press on uninterruptedly until they reach 
our field and lose their freight in successive rains. Hence we have 
every summer what is called a barsat, or rainy season. This, roughly 
speaking, includes the months of July and August, preceding which 
are three months of great heat and drought. 

These seasons (of rain and heat) are the two most characteristic 
features of our India climate; while the sharper winters of the Punjab 
also distinguish it from most other parts of India. After the barsat 
we have dry weather, which gets gradually colder until mid-winter, 
when a few showers of rain fall. Then the thermometer in some dis- 
tricts of the Punjab will reach freezing three or four mornings in suc- 
cession and ice will be formed an eighth of an inch thick — only to 
melt, however, as soon as the sun rises. This, our coldest weather, 
usually occurs about the first day of February. But in rare instances 
snow has been known to fall also at some of the most elevated stations 
on the plains. It did so at Rawal Pindi during the winter of 1892-93. 

The heat which we experience in April, May and June constantly 

(40) , , ; 



For April 


99-2° 


" May 


110.68 


" June 


107.1 


" whole quarter 


105.7° 



THE HOT SEASON 41 

increases in intensity until it is modified by the rains about June 
20th or 25th ; but the whole period is remarkably hot. Even in 
April the thermometer often rises to ioo° Fahrenheit in the shade, 
while the number of days in May and June when it does not reach 
this height is comparatively few. The average maximum for May, 
1884, at Sialkot was 105. 5 ; for the first twenty-four days of June 
104. 1 7 , and on only nine days during this period did the mercury 
fail to reach ioo°, while on twelve days the thermometer read no Q 
or more, and once 117.5 . The hottest years during the period of 
which I am specially writing were 1887 and 1888. The mean of the 
highest daily readings in the shade and the sun during 1887 was as 
follows : 

In the shade. In the sun. 

153-5° 
163-57° 
160.4 



The total number of days in the same quarter of 1888 when the 
thermometer rose above ioo° was 63; number above 105 was 40 ; 
number above no° was 24; number above 115 was 10. The 
highest heat registered in the shade at any time during the decade 
(1882-92) was about 118.5 . ^ ut ^ ^ s sa ^ tnat sometimes the 
temperature rises to 125 or 130 . It is during this season that the 
luh blows — that steady, hot, dry, southwestern wind which burns 
one's cheek like air from a heated furnace, and absorbs every 
particle of moisture lying in its pathway. 

At such seasons, outside work must be done mornings and evenings. 
Schools begin at 5.30 a. m. and close at n.30. Morning church 
service is held at 6 or 7 a. m. Traveling is usually done at night. 
Foreigners cannot venture out much without pith or cork hats and 
umbrellas. During the day houses are closed to keep out the heat. 
Punkhas (large fans hanging from the ceiling and pulled with ropes by 
coolies) are set in motion and other devices adopted to secure a cer- 
tain degree of comfort. Even at night the air will sometimes remain 
above blood heat and bed clothing will feel hot to the touch. Per- 
haps the most uncomfortable time is just when the rains begin, when 
the temperature is very high and the air full of moisture, when 
perspiration sticks to the body and no relief is given by its evaporation. 

On the plains rain, even in the barsat (the chief wet season), does 



42 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

not usually come every day ; but sometimes the fall during a downpour 
is very heavy and occasionally storms are accompanied by thunder and 
lightning. The seasons of 1886, 1890, and 1893 were very remark- 
able in this particular at Sialkot and indeed throughout the Punjab. 
In the latter part of July, 1886, sixteen and one-half inches of rain 
fell during thirty-six hours in the Sialkot cantonment, producing 
a flood such as had not been seen for ten or twelve years. During the 
week beginning August 4, 1890, 24.31 inches of rain fell at Sialkot— 
the fall varying each day from half an inch to full ten inches. The 
latter amount came down August 10th, and almost all of it within the 
space of six or seven hours on that day. Even this cloudburst, how- 
ever, was surpassed in some other places. At Surat twelve inches 
of rain fell in twenty-four hours and at Mahura (Bombay Province) 
fifteen inches in twenty-four hours. 

Of course great damage is done by such deluges in a country where 
most of the houses are built of sundried brick. It is calculated that 
700 buildings were destroyed at Sialkot in 1890 by the storms 
above-mentioned ; while several persons were either killed or badly 
injured. At Mahura seventy-four lives were lost, 305 cattle killed and 
1027 houses ruined. In July, 1893, Rawal Pindi,.Bhera and Jhelum 
suffered terribly from floods. The river Jhelum rose very suddenly 
and swept through the streets and bazars of the last-named city, and- 
the houses and shops "just melted down." Half the place became a 
mass of ruins. Nothing of our church was left but the front wall, and 
Dr. Johnson's dispensary and surgical instruments were badly damaged. 
The dispensary in Bhera was also washed away. 

But it is on the hills that we see the greatest and most continuous 
rains. Our chief sanitarium, Dharmsala, has an unenviable pre-eminence 
in this particular — probably because it lies so near, and just under, 
the high range of mountains which stops almost all the clouds in their 
northern flight and causes them to precipitate their moisture. For 
two or three months perfectly dry days are almost unknown there, 
while often the clouds pour down their contents in great floods. The 
first week of August is the usual climax, when hardly an hour passes 
without rain. During the year 1888, 103.05 inches of rain fell at that 
station; 133.89 inches in 1889; 117. 41 inches in 1890 — from April 
to September inclusive ; while it is said that during one twelve-month 
some years ago the rainfall reached almost 200 inches, or over sixteen 



HAIL AXD EARTHQUAKES 43 

feet. On July 31, 1890, as much as 6.22 inches fell; August 19, 
1890, 6.52 inches; and July 10, 1889, 8.2 inches. 

Hail often falls during the hot weather on the plains, and sometimes 
the stones are as large as hens' eggs, endangering the lives of both man 
and beast. At hill stations, snow gets to be several feet deep during 
the winter. In the winter of 1892-93, it was said to have had a depth 
of fifteen feet at Murree. Dust storms (andhies) characterize the hot 
and dry weather of every season on the lowlands. These appear to be 
currents of colder air, highly charged with electricity, rushing down 
from the upper strata. Sometimes they take the form of whirlwinds ; 
always they dash along with great force, bearing in their bosom clouds 
of dust and sand. Although for the moment very disagreeable, com- 
pelling us to close ali the doors and windows of our houses, they gener- 
ally bring some relief from the heat and answer in this respect the pur- 
pose of rain storms. The thermometer has been known to fall 14 
within an hour's time through the occurrence of such a phenomenon. 

Earthquakes are quite frequent in the Punjab, and in elevated parts 
very destructive. One which occurred during the night of May 29 and 
30, 1885, shook the whole region around us and north of us, develop- 
ing a centre apparently in Kashmir, where it overturned houses, rent 
hills and made great havoc. Over three thousand persons and ten 
times as many sheep, goats, cattle and horses perished in this catas- 
trophe. Some villages lost their entire population, thousands of dwell- 
ings were destroyed and great fissures left in the earth, or depressions 
made, which were still visible six years afterwards, when the writer 
visited the valley. 

All these physical and climatic conditions modify our life and work 
in that country. They affect greatly our health, our personal habits, 
our methods and time of itineration, our migration to and from the 
hiiis, our style of buildings and our periodical visits to America. No 
wonder the primitive Aryans exalted the Sun (Surya), the Rain (Indra), 
and the Storm (the Maruts) to the highest rank in their pantheon. 
These forces of nature even yet exercise there a dominating power over 
man and beast. 



CHAPTER V 



SANITARY CONDITIONS 

Unfavorable to Health — Deaths by Violence — Experience with Snakes and Scor- 
pions — Diseases — Cholera, Small-pox and Fever — Health Resorts — Dharmsala, 
Murree and Kashmir — Their Drawbacks. 

N regard to health, physical strength and longevity we find 
many unfavorable conditions in that part of India where 
our mission work is carried on. 

True the population of the country is increasing at the 
rate of nearly one per cent, per annum, and old people are often seen 
there, the limit of life being about the same as in the United States of 
America. Occasionally, too, extraordinary longevity may be observed. 
A Muhammadan woman died at Mian Mir, near Lahore, some years 




ago, 



who was credited with having reached the advanced age of 



150 



years. The grandson, at whose house she expired, was himself eighty 
years of age, having children and grandchildren married. 

Still these facts do not disprove the statement made at the outset of 
this chapter. Exceptions, of course, will always occur; and the chief 
reason for the rapid increase of the population is simply this : adults 
there almost universally marry, marry early and have large families. 
This practice is viewed as almost a religious duty. 

But through neglect, ill treatment, physical violence, bad food, bad 
water, insufficient clothing, accidents and lack of medical remedies, 
thousands of infants and small children (especially females) perish, 
while diseases of various kinds, and other causes, carry off every year 
multitudes of the remainder. 

During the year 1883, 20,571 persons in India were killed by snakes 
and 2399 by wild animals. In 1888, 20,067 were killed by snakes; 985 
by tigers; 287 by wolves; 217 by leopards, and 1139 by other animals. 
And, though hundreds of dangerous beasts and thousands of venomous 
serpents are destroyed every year, the annual mortality from their at- 
(44) 



WILD ANIMALS AND SNAKES 



45 



tacks remains about the same. The Punjab, however, is less affected 
from this cause than almost any other Province in India. During the 
year 1886 only 1 157 persons were killed here by snakes and wild beasts. 
Of these, scorpions killed six persons ; wolves four ; jackals eleven > 
leopards five; and bears two. And during the year 1890 only 834 per- 
sons were reported as killed by snakebite, and thirty-one from the 
attacks of leopards, bears, hyenas, wolves and other animals. Some 
poisonous snakes are found at our own stations on the plains and some 
dangerous animals (especially bears and leopards) at Dharmsala, our 
principal summer refuge ; but only now and then has a casualty oc- 
curred within the range of our personal knowledge. 

Yet we sometimes have unpleasant experiences with snakes that may 
or may not be poisonous. Once a serpent fell on the floor of the 
writer's dining-room at Sialkot from the neighborhood of the roof; at 
another time one fell near the head of 
the bed where he was sleeping ; on a 
third occasion, at Dharmsala, one was 
found near his little boy (eighteen 
months old) in the corner of the room 
where he was playing with his toys; 
on a fourth occasion one was killed 
under the window-sill beside the bed 
on which a lady missionary had been 
reposing; and on a fifth occasion a 
snake was killed in the same lady's 
dressing-room. Miss E. Gordon says, 
" I once jumped out of the door of my 
room screaming, while a snake, with its 

& . COBRA. 

forked tongue out, jumped in at the 

same door." The Rev. A. B. Caldwell also speaks of killing a cobra 
near his bath-room, and a karait in the bath-room itself, as well as other 
similar experiences. Often, too, we had trouble with scorpions as well 
as snakes, killing in our own house alone at Dharmsala twenty or twenty- 
five of these dreaded creatures almost every season. Sometimes they 
get into shoes and clothing that are left on the floor over night; and 
once we found a big, black specimen under one of our pillows. 

Of diseases, the most fatal in our part of the country are usually 
cholera, small-pox, bowel complaints and fever; and that, too, in the 
order named — fevers being by far the most destructive of all to human 




46 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

life.* But we have also many cases of pulmonary trouble, dyspepsia, 
heat apoplexy, liver complaint, spleen, and eye disease. In 1889, when 
the death-rate slightly exceeded the average for the previous five years, 
the number of deaths from cholera reported in the Punjab, where the 
total population is 25,061,956, was 2858 ; from small-pox, 7928; from 
bowel complaints, 18,066; and from fevers, 428,712. In 1888, there 
were 14,938 deaths from cholera ; f 16,938 from small-pox; and 
379,893 from fever. In 1890, there were fewer deaths from bowel 
complaints than in 1889, and only a few more fatal cases of small-pox; 
but cholera was very prevalent, and the mortality from fever was some- 
thing phenomenal. 

Indeed that year was the unhealthiest known in the Province since 
1868, when the system of recording births and deaths was introduced; 
999 municipal towns and 2402 villages were visited by cholera; while 
in many places scarcely an individual escaped without an attack of 
fever. Rawal Pindi, one of our present Districts, suffered more than 
any other in the Punjab during the year 1888, losing fifty out of every 
thousand of its inhabitants. But Sialkot, Gujrat and Gujranwala 
suffered most in 1890. The first-named out of a population of about 
1,100,000 lost 103,360, or nearly ten per cent, of the whole. About 
two-thirds of this mortality occurred in the quarter ending November 
30th, and one-third during the month of October. The number of 
deaths in one week, October 5th to nth, was 8663 — that is, at the rate 
of forty per cent, yearly. 

Cholera, perhaps, makes the most stir and creates the greatest panic 
■ — just because it strikes so unexpectedly and produces such fearful 
agonies. And sometimes it is, indeed, very destructive. In 1892, as 
many as 10,000 are said to have died of this disease in the Sialkot Dis- 
trict alone. But, even at its worst, it does not carry off one twenty- 
fifth as many of the people of the Punjab as fever does. In all India, 
however, it is estimated that there are nearly 420,000 fatal cases of this 
disease in a single year. 

Small-pox would exhibit a larger mortality than it does were it not 
for the excellent system of vaccination established, although even now 
125,500 persons are said to die annually of this malady in India. 

* It is said that 3,500,000 persons die annually of fever in India. 

•j- That year fifty per cent, of the cases were fatal. Two-thirds of the Europeans 
attacked in Rawal Pindi and Murree died. It was also more fatal to Muhammadans 
than to Hindus. 



FEVERS AND MEDICAL SCIENCE 47 

Government agents are found at all central places whose sole business 
it is to go around to the houses of the people and vaccinate everybody 
without charge, using lymph taken directly from a living child's arm 
or a living calf's bpdy.* 

Fevers are generated after a rainy season by the action of the hot sun 
upon the saturated earth and rank vegetation, drawing forth their nox*- 
ious vapors and miasmatic influences. Hence they are more common 
in the fall and early winter than at any other season ; but no period 
of the year shows entire freedom from their presence. Of the different 
kinds which are prevalent, intermittent, remittent; typhus and ty- 
phoid may be mentioned — typhus in some places being endemic. 
Typhoid fever is very common among young European officers and 
soldiers. One great reason why fevers prove so fatal to the natives is 
because they seldom can procure good nursing or good medical treat- 
ment. Although the government does admirably wherever it has es- 
tablished dispensaries and hospitals, it cannot reach easily the great mass 
of the people who live at a distance from them ; and native doctors, who 
pretend to give medicine according to the old Greek or the Hindu 
system, are usually quacks. 

Medical science appears to have had considerable development in 
India before the Christian era ; but its best period was contemporary 
with the ascendency of Buddhism (250 b. c. to 600 a. d.), during 
which public hospitals were established in many cities. When Bud- 
dhism passed into modern Hinduism (600-1000 a. d.) it greatly de- 
generated, chiefly through the increasing stringency of caste rules, and 
the abolition of hospitals. Mussalman doctors, or hakims, came in 
with the progress of Muhammadan conquests, bringing with them a new 
school of medicine. At present, however, little knowledge even of 
their own systems is sought, or acquired, by those who pretend to heal 
disease according to the ancient methods. " Hindu medicine," says 
Sir William Hunter, " has sunk into the hands of the village kabiraj, 
whose knowledge consists of jumbled fragments of the Sanskrit texts 
and a by no means contemptible pharmacopoeia, supplemented by spells, 
fasts and quackery." f And those hakims who claim to be of the 
Grecian School are no better. They seem to classify all diseases and 

*One objection to vaccination, however, is the suspicion that it sometimes propa- 
gates leprosy and other diseases. A child of one of our missionaries once suffered 
Very seriously and very mysteriously from the effects of this process. 

\ Sir William Hunter's " The Indian Empire," pp. 115-118. 



48 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

remedies as cold or hot, without any perceptible scientific basis for such 
a distinction ; and their practice rises little above that of hap-hazard 
applications. A more rational method of medical and surgical treat- 
ment reached India through the advent of Europeans. Now every 
regiment has its surgeons and every civil station its doctors — all of the 
regular school — who have received their education in Great Britain ; 
and medical institutions have been established in India itself for the 
training of natives in every branch of this useful art. Generally 
natives prefer this Angrezi (English) method when they can avail them- 
selves of it, especially if the doctor is a European or an American. But 
sometimes this is not the case. A physician attached to the court of 
the Maharaja of Kashmir told the writer that he was required to use all 
three systems : the Hindu in treating the ladies of the King's Zenana, 
who were very bigoted Hindus; the Greek in administering to the 
Maharaja himself; and the English in prescribing for the Maharaja's 
brother, who is a man of greater intellect and more enlightened views. 
Missionaries labor under the disadvantage of being foreigners, born 
and brought up in a more temperate zone, and (other things 
being equal) suffer more than natives from the bad sanitary conditions 
of the country. But the mortality among foreigners is after all less 
than among the same number of natives* — simply for the reason that 
they can provide better for themselves and their families than the ma- 
jority of natives and can get better medical treatment. Their good 
clothing, comfortable houses, excellent food and drink, careful habits, 
judicious nursing and prompt use of the best medical remedies, under 
the advice of well-educated doctors, secure them either immunity al- 
together from prevalent diseases, or the most rapid recovery possible. 
It is their practice, moreover, to seek every summer freedom from bad 
sanitary surroundings, reinvigoration of body, and complete recovery 
from many ailments, in a sojourn at health resorts on the hills. 
Mothers with their young children, who surfer most from the climate, 
spend three or four months at some such mountain retreat during the 
worst season of the year, while unmarried ladies and gentlemen also 
get a briefer yearly vacation of rest in a similar way. Of course I am 
speaking here of ordinary missionaries. Some with mistaken ideas of 

* Only 8 deaths have occurred abroad in our missionary circle during the past 15 
years — 4 adults (all married ladies) and 4 children. This does not include one male 
missionary and one child who died in America. Our missionary band during these 15 
years has comprised altogether 16 men, 45 women and 35 children. 




(49) 



50 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

higher consecration shorten their lives, and exhibit a greater mortality 
than even natives, by their ascetic practices. 

The health resorts to which we go are usually on some spur of the 
Himalayas from 5000 to 8000 feet above sea-level. Those for the 
north are scattered all along the border in that direction from Abbota- 
bad to Darjiling, Simla, the summer capital of the Empire, being the 
largest, richest and most celebrated. At these places, the families of 
European officers live during six months of the year; and here the 
officers themselves often spend their vacations. Every house (accord- 
ing to English style) has its own name and is generally at some distance 
from its neighbors — located wherever a favorable spot can be found ; 
while good roads wind back and forth in irregular parallels around the 
hills and through the valleys of the place, bringing the houses within 
easy reach of one another and giving ready access also to the church, 
the assembly room, the bazars, the post office, and the other public 
buildings which are found in every station. 

Dharmsala is the sanitarium which has been used most by our own 
mission. It is located on the northern side of the Kangra Valley, fifty- 
three miles from Pathankot, our nearest principal mission station. Two 
mountain spurs, forming a V, or a U, with the apex at the base of Dharm- 
kot, which rises a thousand feet higher, shoot out in irregularly 
descending stages till they reach the plateau below. On these the 
principal part of the station is built. Here are fifty or sixty dwelling 
houses for foreigners, two bazars, barracks for a hundred white sol- 
diers, and lines for a battalion or two of Gurkhas. Here a Commis- 
sioner, a Deputy Commissioner, and other officers have their head- 
quarters in the summer. Here also we have five houses : two, named 
Sunny Side and Shady Side, facing eastward on the western spur of the 
station, about 6000 feet above the level of the sea; and four, called 
Rookwood, Carleton Cottage, Eagle's Nest and Aerie, 1500 feet higher 
up, on Dharmkot. The first two have been long in the hands of the 
Mission. The last are on property which was purchased by us in the 
spring of 1883. Masadi, a typical farmer-shepherd and the head of a 
Gaddi village, has had local charge of this property for twenty or 
twenty-five years. 

Hardly any hill retreat can boast of grander scenery in its immediate 
neighborhood than Dharmsala. Viewed from our lower houses, or the 
road to the Gurkha lines, or from the European barracks, a splendid 
picture presents itself to a beholder. 



VIEW FROM SUNNY SIDE 51 

On the right, 2500 feet below, spreads out Kangra Valley, renowned 
for its rice fields and tea plantations ; and beyond it, more than 
twenty miles away, the lower plateau of hills (called the Siwalik Range) 
with their wavy, choppy sea of peaks, and beyond that again, the 
white sandy fringe where the Beas river has its bed ; and beyond that 
still, the distant plains which at their farthest limit can be hardly 
distinguished from the sky with which they seem to blend. 

Right at our feet we look down into a deep, wood-skirted valley ; 
and beyond, at about our own level, we behold the eastern mountain 
spur upon which most of the station is built. There a bazar 
(McLeod Ganj. it is called) and English residences peep out prettily 
through their rural surroundings, while the hill itself advances upward 
in stages from the court-house below to the foot of Dharmkot above. 
Beyond this spur again, but trending to the right, rise in succession 
higher spurs, called Tarun, Titarna and Gandaru, whose grass-covered 
sides exhibit a beautiful green, and whose massive, rounding tops seem 
like the backs of gigantic, crouching elephants. 

On the extreme left, towering 1500 feet above us, is seen Dharmkot, 
with its well wooded front and top, through whose verdant foliage the 
white of an occasional house makes its appearance. On its right, and 
2500 feet higher still, stands the rounded top of Kunal Patthar, be- 
tween which and Tarun a deep valley and a dark forest are visible. 
And beyond all these spurs again, skirting the whole background at 
the distance of ten or fifteen miles, but seemingly nearer, appears the 
gray granite of the main ridge, whose jagged peaks — Balain, Bag, 
Andrar, Asral, Toral and Talang — rise each to the height of 16,000 or 
18,000 feet above sea-level, and whose more depressed and less exposed 
parts exhibit patches of perpetual snow. 

Seen at different seasons — in sunshine or shadow, when the clouds 
are rising or the sun is setting, when snow is falling on the highest 
points or a storm rages below, when a full moon casts its pale light 
upon the foreground or a rainbow spans the abyss at our feet — these 
various objects, combined together as the God of nature has placed 
them, present a panorama of diversified beauty and grandeur which 
(once seen) can never be effaced from the memory. And then every 
other standpoint has its own special picture to present and its own 
peculiar tale to tell — each of which has distinctive attractions. 

More minutely considered, too, Dharmsala has minor beauties. Its 
great tree rhododendrons which bloom in April, its multitudinous 



52 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 




ferns (rooted in the bark of trees and, during the rains, fringing them 
to the height of forty feet), its graceful deodars (akin to the cedars of 
Lebanon), its pretty churchyard and cemetery,* its little lake, its 
neighboring waterfall, its canals for irrigation, its troops of monkeys, 

its far-renowned fountain and 
shrine called Bhagsu, its pretty 
walks and bridle-roads : all add 
to the pleasure of a residence 
there. What an opportunity 
there is also during fair weather 
for little excursions in various 
directions and extemporized 
picnics ! And how pleasant and 
even romantic it is to camp out 
for a day or two at Laka, just at 
the foot of the highest range, 
and, as a part of our experience 
there, make a trip to the pass 
near it, 14,000 feet above the 
level of the sea! 

Next to Dharmsala, Murree 
was our most frequented hill station. It lies farther north and west 
■ — only thirty-nine miles from Rawal Pindi — and its average elevation 
is 1000 feet higher than that of Dharmsala. It also contains three 
times as many residences and a much greater variety of shops, and 
other conveniences. 

Dalhousie, too, was occasionally patronized by our missionaries. 
It is located about as near to Pathankot as Dharmsala is ; and, although 
its scenery is not so grand as that of Dharmsala, its approaches are 
lovelier, and the beautiful lake of Khajiar, and Chamba beyond, 
furnish delightful termini for brief excursions ; while the mountains 
and valleys still farther back give unlimited scope for pedestrian tours. 
Mussoorie and Landour also (Siamese twins), though farther away 
from our field, have in recent years provided a summer retreat for some 

*Said to be the prettiest in all India — a beautiful resting-place for Mrs. Anderson 
and two of Dr. Barr's children. Here lies one of India's Viceroys — Lord Elgin, 
father of the present Viceroy, who died at Dharmsala in the discharge of his duties 
on the 20th of November, 1863. His monument is of graceful gothic architecture, 
fifteen or twenty feet high. 



A MOUNTAIN FAMILY. 



MUSSOORIE AND THE VALE OF KASHMIR 53 

of our people — chiefly on account of their schools. Woodstock 
(for girls) is the best school of its class in all India. From this station 
grand views may be had of the Dehra Dun Valley and the Himalayan 
snow-field. On the horizon of the latter, seventy-five or one hundred 
miles away, can be seen some of the loftiest peaks in the world. 

Occasionally our missionaries prefer spending their vacation in 
taking a tour through some elevated picturesque region. Several 
young ladies have made the journey through Simla and Kulu to 
Dharmsala, spending a few days on their way with the Rev. M. M. 
Carleton and his wife at Kotgarh. But more have gone to the cele- 
brated Vale of Kashmir, which lies (surrounded by mountains) 5000 
feet above the level of the sea and presents a striking combination of 
attractive scenery and delightful experience. 

Nothing in the world, perhaps, is more pleasing to a lover of 
nature, or a seeker of rest, than a visit to this valley. The picturesque 
scenery on the road thither, the girdle of snow-covered peaks, presided 
over by Nanga Parbat, 27,000 feet high; Mount Haramuk and the 
oval-shaped vale below, through which winds leisurely, in many a 
fold, the river Jhelum ; the different lakes, intersecting canals, plateaus 
and mountain meadows ; Srinagar, with its curious bridges, buildings 
and people — an Asiatic Venice, whose houses (roofed with earth and 
flowers) appear 'Mike one vast and variegated parterre;" the chinar 
groves and artificial gardens; the thousand and one Oriental ob- 
jects which meet the eye ; the boat life — so quiet, convenient and 
restful ; 

"And the sounds from the lake, — the low whisp'ring in boats, 
As they shoot through the moonlight; — the dipping of oars, 

And the wild, airy warbling that everywhere floats 

Through the groves, round the islands, as if all the shores 

Like those of Kathay utter' d music, and gave 

An answer in song to the kiss of each wave," 

— all have a singularly touching effect upon the traveler's heart and 
give the region immortal renown. 

" Who has not heard of the Vale of Kashmir 

With its roses the brightest that earth ever gave, 
Its temples, and grottoes, and fountains as clear 
As the love-lighted eyes that hang over the wave ? " 



54 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



All these health resorts and touring regions, however, have their 
drawbacks. Dharmsala is too wet (especially for rheumatic patients), 
furnishes a poor market, was twice visited by cholera (last in 1890) 
and until lately has been difficult of access.* The bridge over the 
Chakki was not ready for travel until June 15, 1890, and neither the 
doll (palanquin) nor the tonga service between it and Pathankot has 
been satisfactory. Dalhousie is built too much on the hillsides and its 
houses are too close to one another. Mussoorie is too far away from 
our field, as also perhaps is the Vale of Kashmir. Murree has been 
scourged too often by cholera (very severely in 1888) and has a poor 
water supply. f Simla is too fashionable and too expensive a 
place for missionaries to live in ; and the trip through Kulu 
is rather wearisome. Of all elevated regions, moreover, it may be 
said that they are not good for heart troubles and that they have their 
own peculiar diseases. 

Nor is it possible in any of these stations to counteract altogether 
the debilitating effects of the climate on the plains. The thermometer 
at Dharmsala, even as high up as Dharmkot, sometimes rises above 8o°, 
and the continuous rains which visit it every season are very depressing. 
Occasional visits to the homeland are absolutely necessary to sup- 
plement all the preventives and remedies which missionaries are able 
to adopt in their field of labor, if they wish to maintain their strength 
in a normal condition and be capable of lengthened service. Es- 
pecially is this the case with ladies ; while as for children, they must 
be taken home and left there, to get a good constitution, if for no 
other reason. 



* The average expense of each adult in a family, while going to or from Dharm- 
sala, is about eleven dollars; to or from Murree, six dollars and a half. The 
whole expense of my ten days' trip to Kashmir (including a journey of 350 miles) 
was forty-three dollars. 

f Cholera also sometimes visits Kashmir, and when it broke out at Srinagar in the 
latter part of May, 1892, 1731 cases, with 990 deaths, were reported in four days. 




ON A LAKE IN KASHMIR. 



CHAPTER VI 




DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

Houses — Furniture — Clothing — Food — Punkhas — Vermin — Servants — Separation of 
Families — Homes for Children — Salaries — Recreations — Intercourse with 
Anglo-Indians — With Travelers — With Natives. 

HAT about your domestic and social life ? How are you 
housed ? What comforts have you ? How do you dress? 
What kind of food do you eat ? How do the natives 
live? Such questions are often asked a returned mission- 
ary, and ought to be answered. 

An India missionary's dwelling is usually located, not in the heart 
of towns or cities, but in the open country — partly because land is 
dearer in closely populated places, and partly because it is more com- 
fortable and healthful to live where there is a freer circulation of air. 

Our houses on the plains are built chiefly with the design of keeping 
out heat. Hence they have very heavy brick walls — generally one and 
one half or two feet thick — and are covered with massive flat roofs, 
composed of brick, mortar and earth, supported by a wooden frame- 
work thrown horizontally from wall to wall. The floors also are 
earthen, covered with concrete and hard plaster, or brick. The main 
rooms, forming a compact centre, are surrounded by smaller rooms and 

(55) 



56 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

verandas, partly for use and partly to keep the heat from striking the 
interior walls. Our houses have also lofty ceilings (from twelve to 
twenty feet high), so as to give plenty of air during that part of the 
day when the windows and doors need to be tightly closed. Light is 
admitted through small windows near the ceiling which are worked by 
cords, and through glass doors, which thus serve a double purpose. 
There are no cellars or second stories usually. Our Zafarwal house is 
the only double-storied one on the plains in our Mission ; while Sunny 
Side and Shady Side are the only ones on the hills. The kitchen is 
not in the dwelling proper, but stands near by ; while servants have 
their own little houses in a convenient locality. 

The furniture of our homes is often quite scanty, and generally 
second-hand. Country-made cotton carpets (called daries), charpais 
(native bedsteads), chests of drawers in two sections, chairs of different 
sorts, tables (dining, centre and study), sideboards, presses for cloth- 
ing and books, a few rugs, and some pictures or other ornaments on the 
walls, comprise the bulk of our household goods. English people in 
India generally try to make one room look attractive, but care little for 
the rest — they have to move so often. 

No effort is made by missionaries to keep up with a fashionable world 
in the style of their garments. Only in great cities, large cantonments 
and popular hill stations, can tailors, dressmakers and milliners be 
found who make any pretension to advanced work in their different 
lines. And, as their charges are high and our need of fine clothing is 
not great, we do not often patronize them. Native tailors (darzies), 
however, can be hired in many places at low wages, who are good imita- 
tors, and, with the aid of other garments or published patterns as guides, 
can, under the eye of a skillful mistress, produce articles of male and 
female attire which answer very well under all ordinary circumstances ; 
while bonnets, when they look too wretched, can be renewed or touched 
up by the ladies themselves in some sort of style. But many articles 
are often worn peculiar to the country — such as white or khaki (dust- 
colored) suits, pith or soft felt hats, cork helmets, shaggy, woolen 
pattu cloaks or overcoats; while in rain or sun, a double-covered 
white-topped umbrella is almost indispensable. Hence garments taken 
to that country give place a great deal to others and, if they can be kept 
from vermin, frequently last for years. A gentleman's black suit and a 
lady's silk dress have been known to do duty on state occasions from 
the time of their owners' arrival in the country until their departure on 



FOOD AND MEALS 57 

furlough. Hence, too, a group of missionaries generally presents a 
motley, and, to- an unfamiliar eye, a somewhat amusing aspect. Cloth- 
ing of different eras, dating from the time when their respective wearers 
left home, mingled with local fashions or individual whims, combine 
to give them a nondescript appearance. This is one reason why old 
missionaries shrink from durbars, levees, dinners and calls on the more 
fashionable English, and why they are disposed to push out new-comers 
as their representatives when duty requires some attention to the de- 
mands of society. 

Of food we can usually get a variety either from the bazar or from 
our own garden ; for missionaries try to keep up a garden, even if it is 
somewhat expensive. Mutton is our staple and best meat ; although 
beef, fowl and fish are sometimes placed on our tables. Of vegetables — 
we have potatoes, common and sweet, cabbage, tomatoes, cauliflower, 
onions, lettuce, egg-plant, celery, beans, peas, turnips, radishes and 
bindis (okra) in their season ; and of fruits — oranges, ponielos (shad- 
dock, grape fruit), bananas, peaches, apricots, mangoes, plums, pears, 
guavas, grapes, limes, loquats, melons, and occasionally, perhaps, a 
taste of strawberries. Canned fruits, jams, biscuits (crackers) and fish, 
bottled prunes, vinegar and condiments of every kind — brought all the 
way from England or America — can be had by paying the prices asked 
for them. Sugars are made in the country ; rice and tea grow in 
Kangra Valley ; rock-salt is brought from the Salt Range of the Jhelum 
District; while several kinds of dal (pulse)* and other cereals are an- 
nually cultivated by all the farmers. Bread (often not good) we gener- 
ally get from a baker, and butter from the bazar ; but many missionaries 
have their own cows, and can thus provide plenty of milk for young and 
old — and may be butter also ; while the water drawn from our deep 
wells is of the very best quality, and, either with or without lime juice, 
furnishes a very necessary and refreshing drink. 

We have two standard meals : breakfast between ten and twelve in 
the forenoon and dinner from four to seven in the evening ; but, as it 
is not wise to go out and do our morning work on an empty stomach, 
we usually take a little tea, toast, and perhaps an egg, immediately 
after rising. This is called little breakfast. About one or two p. m. 
we have a cup of tea ; and the same with a biscuit an hour or two after 
dinner — perhaps outside of the house under a tree. Morning worship 
comes just before or after breakfast — often in Hindustani with the ser- 
vants ; evening worship, as at home. 



58 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

In serving meals the style set by English people in that country is 
somewhat followed by missionaries. Several courses are given. 
Breakfast begins with porridge of some kind and dinner with soup. 
The latter ends with dessert which is usually pudding. Pies are gen- 
erally discarded ; so is ice water, even in hot weather, and of course 
wine, or strong drink of any kind, which forms such an essential part 
of the Anglo-Indian's diet. Of native dishes we often have curry and 
rice. Kichari (a preparation of rice and dal with spices, fried onions 
and boiled eggs, chopped fine), pilau (which consists of rice boiled 
with ghi, fat, and either meat or some vegetable), and, for very young 
children, paspas (a combination of rice and chicken cooked together). 
Hot water plates are also sometimes used to keep our food warm. 

In the summer punkhas are kept going day and night, mornings and 
evenings excepted ; while daily baths are common. In the winter (from 
the beginning of October to the end of February) we have more or 
less fire in our dining and sitting-rooms and in the study — even though, 
during the middle of the day when we go out, pith hats and umbrellas 
may be required to protect us from the rays of the sun. 

Much discomfort in housekeeping arises from leaking roofs, dust, 
ants, rats, mice, lizards, neolas, gnats, mosquitoes, wasps, crickets, 
fish-moths, sparrows and other nuisances. Rugs and loose articles 
must be shaken every day; carpets once a week. When big rains 
come carpets must often be lifted, furniture moved and vessels set here 
and there to catch the dripping water. Birds find our rooms cooler 
than the outside air, and often make their nests in some part of our 
unplastered ceilings ; rats and mice have their fun racing back and 
forth through our bedrooms at night, sometimes gnaw our clothing or 
books and, when they can, steal our food. Neolas (weasels) glide in 
and out of our houses through any opening which they may find, jump 
on our tables or sideboards, upset our milk jugs and dive their noses 
into our butter. Gnats, sand flies and mosquitoes do their best to 
make a living off us when we are asleep and, except when punkhas are 
going, must be warded off by nets. Lizards glide continually over our 
walls and ceilings and often drop down on our tables, beds or floors. 
Fish-moths get behind our pictures and, when they find an opportunity, 
fringe the edges of our photos and engravings. Common moths infest 
our wardrobes and destroy our woolen garments. Crickets roughen 
and deform the backs of our books and the smooth surface of our 
shoes. Locusts once in a while devour our gardens and defile 



SER VANTS 



59 



our wells.* Ants invade our sideboards and swarm over our carpets. 
Meat, and other edibles must be kept in dolies (movable cupboards, 
with feet and perforated sides), which are either hung up by a rope or 
set in vessels filled with water — to keep out small vermin. White 
ants unexpectedly rise through some unobserved opening in the floor 
and, before we are aware, eat holes in our carpets and rugs, destroy 
many dollars' worth of books, and reduce to shreds the contents of a trunk. 
They have no more respect for broadcloth or silk than for the coarsest 
cotton. Book covers furnish them a toothsome repast. Theology and met- 
aphysics give them no difficulty whatever, and even Greek, Arabic 
and Hebrew roots are devoured as stubble. Metal, glass, queens- 
ware and the harder parts of 
some kinds of wood are about 
the only things that defy their 
ravages. Trunks must be placed 
on skeleton benches, called tea- 
poys, and daily — if not hourly 
— inspection must be kept up 
to detect their approach and 
circumvent their movements. 

But perhaps more annoyance 
comes from the ways of ser- 
vants than from anything else 
connected with housekeeping : 
they practice so much deceit 
and pilfering. Not only money, 
but provisions, wood and small 
articles of value must be kept under lock and key. The bunches 
of keys carried around by us would be objects of wonder to people at 
home. Sugar, rice, potatoes — everything required in cookery — must 
be doled out just as it is needed and, after that even, a close watch ob- 
served. When servants buy anything for us we must demand of them 
a strict account, if we desire to see that in weight, measure or price 
they do not get the advantage of us. But, in spite of all our efforts, 
no doubt we lose, and they gain, twenty or twenty-five per cent, of 
everything which passes through their hands. 

Why then keep so many servants ? Would it not be cheaper and 
more satisfactory, and every way better for us to do our own work, or 
* As was the case in the summer of 1891. 




HILLS OF WHITE ANTS. 



60 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

at least try to get along with fewer servants ? No ; it would not, even 
if the task were possible, nor would it be fairly treating that cause for 
which we are laboring in India. An entire reconstruction of methods 
and conveniences would be required to do without servants, and that, 
too, at considerable cost ; and, should missionaries attempt this mode 
of managing their household affairs in that country, they would at any 
rate soon be laid aside from disease and sink under the burden — 
to say nothing of the great diminution of that strength and leisure 
which, under present conditions, can be expended in mission labor. 
Besides, a loss of prestige and influence among the natives would in- 
evitably follow such a course. Orientals think meanly of a sahib who 
does not keep servants ; and they even feel that he is doing the poor a 
great wrong by not furnishing them employment and thus helping 
them to make a living. A kind and generous spirit, moreover, helps 
to commend the religion of him who exhibits it and to show that its 
essence is love. 

Nor is it possible for one or even two servants to do all the work 
which is now distributed among several. To such an arrangement the 
caste system presents an insuperable obstacle. The cook will not take 
care of the horse or the cow ; the gardener will not carry water for the 
kitchen ; nor will any servant but a mihtar sweep the floors or attend 
to the bath-room. Besides, the cost of service would not be lessened 
much anyhow by such an arrangement. One man then would want 
the same wages that all get now. 

Taken at the worst, however — including both wages and stealing — 
it may be safely affirmed that our household service costs us little, if 
any, more than one good servant in an American city. We are truly 
thankful that at such a trifling expense the missionary can be relieved 
of many worldly cares and set free for higher and nobler, if not more 
necessary, work. 

Speaking of domestic trials, we should remark here that the greatest 
cross, by far, which a Christian foreign missionary is called upon to 
bear in India, is separation from other members of his family and 
especially his separation from children when it is necessary for the 
latter to be taken home and left there. Almost every married man 
experiences something of this trial during the itinerating season, 
although as a general thing his household accompanies him on his 
preaching tours. In the summers, too, his wife and children must go 
to the hills before he does, producing a separation of two or three 



SEPARATION OF FAMILIES 



61 



months out of every twelve. And then, when the little ones reach the 
age of eight or ten years, considerations of health, morals, education, 
spiritual profit and future prospect, demand that they permanently 
leave that country and make their home in a better land. This 
usually leads to their separation from father and mother for several 
years at the most critical period of their lives. A good Providence 
watches over them, it is true ; and missionaries' children, as a general 
thing, fare as well and become as useful as those of any other class of 
Christians. But the trial, nevertheless, is a sore one to both old 
and young ; nor can words well portray the anxiety which it produces 
or the tears which it occasions. 




centipede [about life-size). 



Some churches are providing American Homes for the children of 
foreign missionaries who remain in the field, with the design of fur- 
nishing these little ones all the comforts and advantages of a Christian 
family at a figure within the ability of the parents to pay. Such 
homes are usually established where there are good church and school 
privileges and, when properly conducted, are no doubt of great 
benefit to all concerned. But the separation of brothers and sisters, 
as they grow older, and their accommodation under different roofs, 
though perhaps necessary, adds one more to the long list of such 
experiences and, if possible, should be avoided. Whatever its- draw- 
backs, however, an arrangement like this is undoubtedly far better 
than any which requires the children to return to India. 

The matter of salary is about the last thing considered by a foreign 



62 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

missionary in going out to his field of labor for the first time — if 
thought of at all ; but, as many persons ask him about it and wish to 
know whether or not he fares as well as others or is provided with a 
comfortable living, it may be well here to make a few remarks in 
reference to the subject. 

The salary given one of our United Presbyterian ordained India 
missionaries — including allowances of every kind — is about equal to 
the average given by other societies working in that country. Some — 
for instance the American Methodists, and perhaps the Baptists — give 
slightly less ; the Free Church of Scotland and the Wesleyans, thirty 
percent, more; the Established Church of Scotland, more still; the 
American Presbyterian Church, about the same as our own. Govern- 
ment chaplains of the junior grade receive about as much as we do ; 
chaplains of the senior grade, sixty per cent. more. Members of the 
Covenanted Civil Service get on the average about three times as 
much as we do; while government servants of all kinds, ecclesiastical, 
civil, military, and medical, have, in addition to their salaries, the 
promise of pensions also after their term of service is completed. Un- 
married lady missionaries receive an income equal, perhaps, to the 
average given female teachers in America. 

Many British Boards and Churches differ from our own and other 
American bodies, in disclaiming the right to lessen the wages of 
missionaries while they are actually filling out a term of service in the 
field, following in this particular the policy of their civil government. 
They also discriminate between doctors and ministers, and between 
new and old missionaries, in regard to the amount of their salary. 
But no difference in the pay of any one, married or unmarried, is 
allowed by our church on account of ordination, special talent, college 
graduation, medical training, or experience ; although allowances are 
granted for children under eighteen years of age and to single ladies 
who are required to keep house alone. The principle followed in all 
these arrangements is that each person should have a decent living. 

And this the missionaries have had — partly, however, because ex- 
change has been on the constant decline, bringing them a greater and 
greater number of rupees for every dollar spent in India, while there 
has not been a proportionate increase there in the cost of the necessa- 
ries of life. 

But no provision is made for the aged, or the infirm, except to con- 
tinue them in the field on full salary. Our Association thinks that if 



RECREA TIONS 63 

the way for retirement on a moderate pension were opened up, it 
would be more agreeable to the laborer himself, more economical to 
the church and more advantageous to the mission cause. Of course, 
like other helpless Christians, retiring foreign laborers might obtain 
admission to a Home for the Aged ; but none of them desires to be 
compelled to do so, and if left to their own choice, as might be the 
case did they have a pension, most would probably prefer some other 
place of final rest. 

The recreations of missionaries are not very numerous, or at least 
they do not take up much of their time. An evening ride in a tum- 
tum, or phaeton, a call on one of our associated brethren (foreign 
or native), a game of lawn tennis or badminton — where there are 
young people — a little singing or other music, an informal breakfast or 
dinner with one of our neighbors, an occasional anniversary of 
some kind, an hour witnessing the sports of English soldiers or a dis- 
play of native fireworks, a quiet Fourth of July celebration, a visit to 
the military parade-ground on grand occasions, a family picnic on the 
hills — these are the chief variations from the regular monotony of our 
more serious life. 

The daily mail is also a source of great pleasure to us, because it 
brings us letters from our associates, as well as newspapers — perhaps 
even a daily paper, giving us a glimpse of the world's doings, and es- 
pecially the events of that Oriental world in which we are living. But 
more enjoyable still is the weekly arrival of the foreign mail bringing 
its package of letters and its budget of newspapers from home. How 
eagerly mail day is anticipated ! How heartily every bit of news is 
read ! How much the whole is pondered over ! How happy we are 
when all the news we get is good news ! How depressed when word 
comes of the death, or serious illness, of friends — perhaps of a dear 
parent or a loving child ! How disappointed, too, is the unfortunate 
one who gets nothing at all in the mail ! Missionaries at least know 
well the meaning of these Scripture passages : " Hope deferred maketh 
the heart sick," and "As cold waters to a thirsty soul so is good news 
from a far country." 

The only class of foreigners with whom we have any special inter- 
course in a social way is that of civil and military officers. Occasion- 
ally we exchange calls with some of these, or are asked to take a meal 
at their tables. Now and then, too, we may be invited to their more 
formal levees and other entertainments where, by courtesy, we ministers 



64 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

are allowed the rank of chaplains.* Instances of considerable intimacy 
between missionaries and English officers might also be mentioned. 
Some of the latter are very pious, take a deep interest in our Christian 
work and make us truly happy by their kindness, their sympathy and 
their financial help. Association with such is a great pleasure. 

But for many reasons this feature of our experience is quite limited. 
It is hard for persons to be good missionaries and at the same time to 
meet the requirements of fashionable society — impossible, indeed, we 
should say. Besides, there are not many Anglo-Indians congenial to 
us. Few of them are spiritually minded or take any particular interest 
in our missionary work ; and if religious at all, their religion is prone 
to assume, either the narrow form of High Churchism and Ritualism, 
or the equally narrow, but antipodal, form of Plymouthism. Their 
ways and tastes and manner of talking also are different from ours. 
Our American accent and nasal tones seem as strange to them as their 
British accent and monotonous pharyngeals do to us. Occasionally, 
too, when advances are made, or even calls returned, one meets with a 
cool reception. f While Englishmen can be found who exhibit the 
highest type of gentility, others can be found who are of the very op- 
posite character, persons who seem to measure the height of their rank 
by the number and the violence of their social (unsocial) rebuffs. Be- 
sides it appears hard for most people who have been trained in the 
school of a graded aristocracy to strike that golden mean between 
fawning adulation and patronizing condescension, which alone can 
win the heart of a true republican. 

Visits from home friends, or travelers, are few and far between in 
our India mission field — it lies so far to the north, and is so destitute 
of w r orld-renowned objects. The visit made by Dr. W. W. Barr and 
the writer in 1 880-81 was the first that occurred after the origin of 
the Mission in 1855. Since then seven Americans have either gone 
expressly to see it or have included it in their tours — two young ladies 
(Dr. Adamson, of Philadelphia, and Miss Mary H. Peirce, of Sioux City, 
Iowa), in the spring of 1890 ; Miss Ida Gordon, in the winter of 1891 
-92; the Rev. John Gillespie, D. D., in December, 1891; the Rev. 

* Anglo-Indian Society is perhaps the most exacting in the world in regard to the 
rules of social precedence. 

fin Anglo-Indian society the stranger (new-comer) is expected to call first; and 
invitations to call are never given by either party — it being considered bad form to 
ask others thus to pay you their respects. 



NATIVE LIFE 



65 



D. A. Murray, a Japanese missionary, in 1893, and two sisters of the 
Rev. J. H. Martin (Mrs. E. M. Giffen, of the Egyptian Mission, and 
Miss Dora Martin), in 1894-95. As might be imagined, such episodes 
are interesting events to us. We wish they were more frequent. 




INTERIOR OF A NATIVE HOUSE — BY DAY AND BY NIGHT. 
{Front a Punjabi drawing.) 

The style of living exhibited by our native helpers and Christians 
varies greatly with the amount of their income. The larger part of 
the people, being poor^ live in a very primitive manner. One or two 



66 LIFE AND WORK \N INDIA 

small rooms of a mud house, opening out into the street or into a little 
yard, half a dozen articles of furniture, a few wheat cakes, called 
chapaties, an occasional cup of milk, clothing barely sufficient to 
cover the body and that washed very seldom, a hukka (big pipe) — 
these are about all they possess. Persons with a little larger income 
have a veranda also in front of their dwelling, keep two or more 
changes of raiment and get a greater variety of food. A still higher 
grade of people live in roomier houses, some of which are two-storied, 
and can separate the zenana more completely from that part of 
their dwelling which is frequented by men. They also keep a 
servant or two. Only a few of our people — such as the late Rev. E. 
P. Swift and the Rev. Thakur Das — can adopt to any great extent 
the mode of living which is exhibited by Europeans. 

Among native Christians, men with men, and women with women, 
have a good deal of social intercourse in an informal way, accompanied 
generally by the use of the hukka ; but only on some great occasion 
(such as a wedding) do they give dinners and bring together a large 
company of friends. Nor do the different sexes, even at these more 
formal gatherings, mingle together as they do in European society. 

Between foreign missionaries and their native brethren, whether 
ministerial or not, little intercourse of a strictly social character 
prevails. This is owing partly to the great difference in their styles 
of living. Neither party relishes much the food used by the other. 
Besides, such entertainment as the natives would try to give foreigners 
would involve them in too much expense. The cost of even biscuit 
and tea, or a plate of sweet meats, cuts deeply into their scanty wages. 
Lack of leisure, too, is an important consideration. But, after all, the 
great reason probably lies in that example which has been set us by 
government officials. Caste, pride of race, different modes of 
thinking, different grades of culture, different ideas of woman-kind, 
differences of religion, lack of tact, and other things, combine to 
raise a wall of social separation between natives and foreigners even 
when they belong to the same public service and meet every day in 
the discharge of their ordinary duties. Both parties, moreover, seem 
to be about equally at fault in the matter. 

- Now this tone, feeling, practice spreads until it affects mission 
people as well as others. All are influenced by the same great spell. 
More than this: it must be remembered that the missionaries and 
the great majority of the more highly educated Christians stand to 



WHY ANGLO-INDIANS AND NATIVES DO NOT MIX 67 

one another in the relation of employers and employees. This of 
itself naturally causes them to keep aloof from one another. They 
cannot well meet on an equality. But, whatever the cause, the result 
is evil and ought to be prevented if possible. Better would it be for 
both sections of the community if they saw more of each other, and 
met more frequently on the plane of common Christian friendship. 
Better for the cause of Christ if foreigners and natives could get into 
closer touch with one another and, with a fuller understanding of each 
other's tastes, desires and aspirations, push forward, side by side, the 
great work in which they are all engaged. And if any missionary 
methods or habits stand in the way of this end they ought to be 
changed. 

Various explanations are given of the cause of a lack of closer 
intercourse between Anglo-Indians and the people whom they rule in 
India. 

A native writer attributes it to the earlier experiences of the English 
with barbarian races in other parts of the world which have caused an 
instinctive, uncontrollable feeling of contempt for any people with a 
dark complexion — in other words to " the antipathy of a white man 
for a nigger." 

A different explanation, however, is given by an Englishman. He 
says: 

" Most likely the sentiments and prejudices that stand in the way 
of a free intercourse between the races are so complex that any simple 
explanation would be impossible. We are partly to blame, or rather 
to be pitied, for a certain stiffness of demeanor which always makes 
a foreigner ill at ease in our company. The average Englishman be- 
haves no worse to the native of India than he often does to a German 
or an Italian. As a nation we are seldom happy in our intercourse 
with strangers of another race ; and Indian gentlemen are apt to 
mistake the gaucherie of our national manners for contemptuous intoler- 
ance. Then, again, the conditions under which most Englishmen live 
in India have helped to make it difficult for the two races to join in 
social amusements. The hard-worked Anglo-Indian has little time to 
cultivate the amenities of society, save those which conduce most 
directly to his own health and comfort. He has little leisure to 
fulfil the rather exacting requirements of Oriental etiquette. A tropical 
sun leaves only a few hours in the day for the pleasures of life, and 



68 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

these are more easily pursued in the company of his own country- 
men." 

A British newspaper also says that " the arguments which Anglo- 
Indian society chiefly relies on to justify its exclusiveness are by no 
means easily met. It will be urged, for instance, that Hindus as a 
rule regard the European as unclean ; that Muhammadans look upon 
women, English ladies included, with sentiments which, to politer 
Europe, have seemed horrible ever since the days of knight-errantry. 
You cannot well be friendly, says the Anglo-Indian, with a man who 
directly you leave will carefully purify himself from the contamination 
of your visit. You would not have your wife and daughters stared at 
and spoken to by men whose theories about the sex are untranslatable. 
Arguments of this kind are usually accepted as convincing. Still, 
on the other hand, were native society homogeneous — consisting either 
of all Hindus or all Muhammadans, all Sikhs or all Rajputs — a modus 
vive?idi would most likely have been discovered long ago. Perhaps, 
therefore, the real impediment to a closer and kindlier intercourse is 
the difficulty of being several things to several conditions of men — of 
being an adept in some three or four different ceremonials and a 
master of as many different styles of conversation. As at present 
informed, Anglo-Indian society is of opinion that the trouble needed 
to acquire such arts is not worth taking." 

All admit, however, that the present situation is a political mis- 
fortune. 




AN ANGLO-INDIAN'S FRIEND. 





SCORPION. 



CHAPTER VII 

FINANCIAL CONDITIONS 

Ordinary Appropriations — Gifts for Special Objects— For Permanent Improvements 
— The Stewart Fund — The Q. C. Fund — Help from the Women's Board and 
Sabbath Schools — Contributions in India Itself— Government Aid — Favorable 
Exchange. 

|ONEY is as necessary to mission work as to other enterprises. 
Hence it is a pleasure to note that our financial condition 
was constantly improving during most of the period about 
which we are writing. 
This was true first of the amount appropriated by the home church 
for our current expenses year by year. The proportion of mission 
funds approved for India by the Assembly of 1881 was not quite 
four-elevenths of the whole amount appropriated to the foreign field ; 
since 1884 it has been about one-half. The amount expended in 1881 
was almost exactly $20,000; in 1891 it was about $48,000. Several 
causes contributed to this change : first, the growing liberality of the 
American Church ; secondly, better acquaintance with our work ; 
thirdly, the manifest blessing of God upon our field ; and finally 
persistent effort on the part of our missionaries to bring about this 
result, including an appeal to the Board and a memorial to the General 
Assembly. 

The money given for special objects by people at home in our own 
church has also increased, just as it has in other denominations. In 
this way some pupils have been supported in our schools, some Bible 
women have been employed, and even the salaries of some mission- 
aries have been paid. From the very beginning of the period about 

(69) 



70 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

which we are writing until his death, March 21, 1893, money was 
furnished by Mr. T. D. Anderson, of Baltimore, Md., to support two 
lady missionaries in zenana work. Others have pursued a similar 
course ; and especially has this been true of missionary societies, con- 
gregations, Sabbath Schools, Colleges and Theological Seminaries. A 
generous rivalry has sprung up between different localities and organi- 
zations, the result of which is that nearly all our lady workers and 
some of our ordained men also have their salaries paid by special agencies. 
Although the money thus contributed does not theoretically increase 
the amount of our current funds, but merely diminishes the sum re- 
quired to be given through regular church channels, as a matter of 
fact its effect thus far has been to stimulate greatly the whole mission 
movement, increase the number of our laborers and swell the funds of 
our general treasury. Indeed, at one time it carried our church 
through an important crisis, and even yet we hardly see how our 
foreign work could get along without it. 

What the ultimate effect of thus giving for special objects may be, is 
hard to say. Some think it tends to narrow the missionary views and 
feelings of both givers and receivers and prevent the growth of that 
broadening outlook and all-embracing sympathy upon which alone 
a steady, healthy advancement in the support of- Christ's cause can be 
based — to say nothing of its effect upon the great motives which should 
underlie and dominate all liberality and Christian activity, viz., love 
of the Saviour and love of souls. But, as already intimated, such re- 
sults have not yet been particularly visible.* 

For permanent improvements also we have received very generous 
contributions. Four of these deserve particular mention : namely, the 
Stewart Legacy, the Quarter Centennial Fund, the appropriations 
made by the Women's Board for Hospitals and Dispensaries, and col- 
lections received from Sabbath Schools. 

The bequest of over $40,000 made by Archibald Stewart, Esq., of 
Indiana, Pa., came into the hands of the Foreign Board in the 
years 18 79-1 883. After $4000 had been deducted to pay a debt due 
the Egyptian Mission, two-fifths of the remainder (or about $14,600) 

* Dr. Dennis says, " Some method must be devised by which voluntary contribu- 
tions to foreign missions shall appeal not simply to impulse or to choice or to incli- 
nation, but to an abiding conviction, a profound sense of duty, a consciousness of 
sacred obligation and a deep spirit of personal loyalty to our Lord." — Foreign 
Missions after a Century •, p. 220. 



PUNDS FOR PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS 71 

were given to the India Mission and appropriated to the establishment 
of such a Theological and Literary Institute as would prepare native 
Christians for ordinary religious work as well as for the Christian 
ministry. The sum designated had swollen by accruing interest to 
$15,710.22 before it left America and since its arrival in India has 
gained over thirty per cent, from the same cause — making a total of 
about 50,000 rupees. More than three-fourths of this sum was ex- 
pended in purchasing the ground and erecting the buildings of the 
Christian Training Institute. The rest— now amounting to about 
14,000 or 15,000 rupees — is still in the hands of the Mission for future 
improvements of a similar character. 

The Quarter Centennial Fund was a thank-offering raised to com- 
memorate the twenty-fifth anniversary of that Union (in 1858) of the 
Associate and the Associate Reformed Churches by which the United 
Presbyterian Church of North America was formed. Of this sum one- 
fifth was appropriated to the foreign work of our church — to be divided 
equally between its Missions in Egypt and India. India's share, as 
far as received before February, 1892, amounted to 91,451 rupees. 
This had increased, by accruing interest, about 12,000 rupees — mak- 
ing a total of more than 103,000 rupees. 

Nearly all of this fund hitherto expended has gone to the improve- 
ment of the Girls' Boarding School buildings and the erection of 
Mission residences. About one-third remains still in the mission 
treasury, or did so when the writer left India. 

From the Women's Board money aggregating $7000 or $8000 was 
received for the erection of buildings connected with their medical 
work in Sialkot, Jhelum, Bhera and other places, some of which was 
raised by a special appeal. 

From Sabbath Schools a large sum has been recently obtained to 
assist in purchasing the property transferred to us at Rawal Pindi when 
that station was turned over to our church by the Presbyterian Board. 

These permanent improvements have been of great importance in 
establishing and carrying on our work. We know not how we should 
have succeeded without them. In a wonderful manner God raised up 
ways and means for their acquisition just as they were wanted, and 
greatly blessed us in so doing. We think that we have been more 
highly favored in this particular than most Missions. 

But other sources of income must not be overlooked. 

One of these is the benevolence of our foreign laborers, most of 



72 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

whom adopt the tithe rule of giving and contribute liberally in various 
ways to aid special departments of their own or their neighbors' work. 

Another is the gifts of native Christians, who not only help to main- 
tain pastors, but also contribute to the erection of village churches and 
the support of evangelistic laborers. 

A third is the generosity of English officers and residents. The 
amount received from this source, however, is not as great as that 
obtained by the Missions of some other denominations ; nor is it as 
great in our case as many persons might suppose it should be. The 
reasons are obvious. First, none of these people are members of our 
church, or admitted in any way to the management of our work ; while 
at the same time they can find in the neighborhood numerous mission- 
ary undertakings of their own churches, which naturally absorb the 
chief part of their interest and liberality. And then for policy's sake 
we make little effort to solicit their patronage and pecuniary aid. In 
solving the various problems of our missionary life we feel more inde- 
pendent and under less obligation to consult the wishes and prejudices 
of others when only a small fraction of our income is due to their 
benevolence. Nevertheless we do receive some contributions from this 
source, but chiefly for those semi-secular departments of our work — 
educational and medical, for instance — which present a civilizing and 
humanizing, as well as an evangelizing aspect. Since the Lady Duf- 
ferin scheme was started in the summer of 1885 medical aid for native 
women has been particularly -popular with the official classes, and our 
Mission has shared with other agencies their gifts to this object. The 
Lady DurTerin Fund itself, however, cannot be drawn upon for the 
support of medical missionary work. This is one of the conditions 
under which it obtains subscriptions, deference being paid to the 
wishes of Hindu and Muhammadan patrons. 

Another source from which we secure pecuniary help is the govern- 
ment proper. This occurs chiefly in our educational and medical de- 
partments — and for the same reasons, moreover, as have just been 
mentioned in accounting for the private contributions of the English 
to these branches of mission work. Through special favor for a time, 
and (since 1886) through conformity to the rules of a new educational 
code, some of our schools for boys or girls in Jhelum, Gujranwala, 
Sialkot and Rawal Pindi have received "grants-in-aid" from public 
funds, without which a part of them might have been disbanded. The 
Gujranwala High School, indeed, has thus become almost independent 



GOVERNMENT AID, FEES AND EXCHANGE 1% 

of the mission treasury. Donations of land were also made by the 
government to our Women's Memorial Hospital in Sialkot during the 
years 1888 and 1889, while yearly appropriations to its support are 
made by both the Municipal and District Committees. Some might 
question the policy, and even the morality, of such entangling alli- 
ances with the Powers of the land, and doubt whether they do not 
lead to more evil than good. But we are bound at any rate to record 
them as matters of history and to state also that they have been the 
means of considerable pecuniary help. 

I Fees paid by school pupils and doctors' patients is the last item of 
direct revenue which requires particular mention ; nor has it been by 
any means an unimportant one. 

Indirectly, too, it may be remarked, Providence has favored us in 
the transfer of money from America to India. Owing to the depreci- 
ation of the silver coinage of India, our Bills of Exchange have realized 
more and more as the years rolled on, while the purchasing power of 
rupees has diminished much less rapidly. Only once during the past 
fifteen years has there been any considerable rise in the rate of ex- 
change. That was in the summer and fall of 1890, when the United 
States Congress passed a law requiring the monthly purchase of 
4,500,000 ounces of silver. Commencing with 1882 and ending with 
1894 the number of rupees received for every $100 averaged each 
year as follows: 245, 252, 251^, 261^, 281, 286, 297, 296^, 266, 
28 5^> 3 J 9^2, 324^2, 361. Thus while some loss was incurred by the 
early transfer of permanent funds to the mission field there has been a 
decided gain in the matter of current funds. Every hundred dollars 
sent by our Foreign Board in 1892 for the general work was worth 
forty-seven per cent, more to us than the same amount in 1882. 

In almost every way, therefore, God has blessed ©ur Mission finan- 
cially during the past fourteen or fifteen years, raising up friends 
just at the required time, and ordering his general providence so as to 
swell the receipts of our sacred treasury. While it is true that we 
might have used to advantage much more money than we actually got, 
and while it is also true that the church might have sent us far more 
than she did, we are exceedingly thankful that the pecuniary conditions 
under which we operated were as good as they proved to be. 




CHAPTER VIII 




CONDITIONS OF TRAVEL AND COMMUNICATION 

Metaled Roads — Mud Roads and Bypaths — Railways — Dak Gharies — Tongas — ■ 
Ekkas — Dolies — Dandies — Shigrams — Tum-tums — Control of Public Con- 
veyances^ — Traveling Outfit — Inns — The India Postal Service — Its Arrangements 
and Advantages. 

LTHOUGH India is a very populous country and many of 

its inhabitants can be reached without effort, easy and 

quick modes of travel and communication are important 

matters in evangelizing its general masses and establishing 

among them the Christian .Church. 

Fortunately in the neighborhood of central stations, between large 
cities, and on the way to the hills, we have roads of superior excellence. 
In our part of the country there is a large amount of a certain kind of 
half-solidified calcareous limestone, called kankar, forming a stratum 
two or three feet thick, several yards below the surface of the ground 
on the plains, which makes the very best material for roads. After 
being broken into small pieces, softened with water and pounded down 
into an even, compact layer, it produces a turnpike unsurpassed, if not 
{74} 



ROADS IN INDIA 75 

Unequalled, in the world for smoothness and solidity. Over such 
roads — never disturbed by frost and every day swept by low-caste 
coolies — wheeled conveyances can roll at the most rapid pace with 
scarcely a jar, and teams can draw the heaviest loads. Within the 
limits of our mission territory turnpikes of this character have been 
made between Lahore and Attock, between Sialkot and Wazirabad, 
and between Amritsar and Pathankot — to say nothing of many smaller 
thoroughfares and of streets in cantonments. 

On the way to the various hill stations also, roads, more or less solid 
in their formation and more or less adapted to the use of wheeled ve- 
hicles, have been gradually prepared, while treacherous mountain 
streams have been spanned by stone or iron bridges. Between Rawal 
Pindi and Murree, except in two places, where streams remain un- 
bridged, an admirable road was finished many years ago, since which 
period tongas have been carrying passengers over the route at the rate 
of eight or ten miles an hour. 

Between Pathankot and Dalhousie, and especially between Pathan- 
kot and Dharmsala, where our missionaries have generally gone for 
rest, the progress in making good roads has been slower. Not until 
the summer of 1890 was the Chakki bridged — that broad, treacherous 
stream whose crossing was so much dreaded by travelers. And, al- 
though ekkas sometimes made the journey between the two latter 
stations, only a missionary would think of driving a four-wheeled con- 
veyance over the route ; and be only occasionally. But a tonga ser- 
vice has at last been started, carrying passengers as far as Shahpur, or 
about three-fourths of the way ; and in the course of time we may 
hope that the road, and the means of travel in that direction, will be 
all that any one could wish. 

Besides the metaled (kankar) roads of which we have spoken, there 
are some pretty fair ordinary " mud roads," connecting the principal 
towns of the various Districts. These are often fifty or sixty feet 
wide, skirted by two or more rows of trees and carried across muddy 
streams (and sloughs) by bridges or beds of masonry. During a 
large part of the year these highways may be traversed by carts, and 
even carriages, with some degree of ease ; but in dr) weather they get 
very dusty and in the rainy season very muddy. Nor have improve- 
ments progressed far enough to secure in many places the bridging of 
those broad, sandy, changeable and more dangerous streams (such as 
the Degh and the Ravi) which lie between some of our chief mission 



?6 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

centres. If these streams are too deep to be forded they must be 
crossed on rude, flatboat ferries. 

Branching out from these hard {pakka) and soft (kachchhd) roads, 
which are duly kept up by the government, is a vast net-work of un- 
fenced lanes and pathways, by which every village and every well is 
brought into contact with the outer world. In width these minor 
roads range from two to ten or twelve feet ; they are often hollowed 
out, through excessive wear and the encroaching enterprise of neigh- 
boring farmers ; they are sometimes crossed by little earthen aqueducts, 
used in the process of irrigation ; they are seldom level, or entirely free 
from obstructions ; and in rainy weather they are frequently filled with 
water or deep mud. As might be imagined, therefore, traveling by 
these roads is very difficult, except on foot or horseback. Yet in a 
suitable season some do manage to wend their way through them, or 
around them, in tum-tums, and to a small extent also in four-wheeled 
spring-wagons. 

India is not remarkable for its railroads ; but a beginning was made 
in 1853, when the first line of a few miles was opened between Bombay 
and Thana. Now about 18,500 miles are finished and in successful 
operation, about as many as in the whole of South America. These 
traverse the length and breadth of the peninsula and connect all the 
great cities and military cantonments. Some are owned and managed 
by the government ; but most are constructed by private capital on 
which a certain minimum of interest is guaranteed by the govern- 
ment, to which in return they owe a certain measure of subordination. 
Of the Punjab railways, two were in operation when the writer entered 
our field : the Northern State, which ran from Lahore to Peshawar, 
and the Scinde, Punjab and Delhi, which, by its two great arms, con- 
nected Lahore with Karachi on the one hand, and Delhi on the other. 
A branch of the latter, however, starting at Amritsar, was finished as 
far as Dinanagar in November, 1883, and as far as Pathankot, in January, 
1884. A branch of the former also, striking off at Wazirabad, was 
opened to Sialkot, December 10, 1883, and to Tawi, near Jamu, March 
15, 1890. Shortly before, too, the Sind Sagar Line — which at first 
was simply an offshoot of the Northern State, leading from Lala Musa 
to the Salt Mines near Pind Dadan Khan — was (for military reasons) 
pushed forward to the west and northwest, a section of it reaching 
Bhera, one of our more important stations, in January, 1882. These 
extensions added greatly to our railway advantages and helped much 



RAIL WA Y ACCOM MOD A TIOXS 77 

to cheapen, as well as expedite, our missionary journeys. The two 
great lines and their branches, it may also be remarked, were subse- 
quently consolidated into one system, called the Northwestern Rail- 
way, which has since been operated directly by the government. * 

Railway accommodations in India are different from those of almost 
any other country in the world. As in Europe, they are of several 
grades — first, second, intermediate and third classes — of which (on 
the Northwestern Railway) the fare for the first grade is from one to 
one and a half a?inas (that is, from two to three cents) a mile ; for the 
second grade, half as much ; for the intermediate, half the latter j and 
for the third grade, one-third of the second class, or one-sixth of the 
first. 

Third-class carriages are box cars, well ventilated through open 
windows, entered from the sides by many doors, and either seated 
crosswise in compartments, or lengthwise in four rows — a second story 
sometimes being seen. In these may be crowded eighty or one hun- 
dred passengers. 

Intermediate carriages differ from these in being provided with glass 
windows, in having compartments shut off from each other by close 
partitions, and in other respects. 

Second-class, as well as first-class carriages, contain only two com- 
partments — both kinds, however, being often found united under the 
same roof. These compartments (of both grades) are entered from 
the side, have cushioned seats six feet long, upper berths (to be let 
down at pleasure) and toilet rooms. They are also intended to ac- 
commodate at night only as many passengers as there are seats and 
berths, so as to provide sleeping facilities for every occupant. 

First-class compartments are more attractively furnished than the 
second-class, and are made to hold fewer people, four being the usual 
limit in the former and five, or seven, in the latter. 

All the carriages, except third-class, are lighted at night by kero- 
sene lamps let down through the roof, whose heat is cut off from the 
interior of the rooms by semi-spherical, inverted glass globes. Night 
travelers are expected to provide their own bedding, and nothing is 
more common among a passenger's luggage than his bundle of pillows 
and comforters, wrapped up probably in a piece of striped blue and 
white cotton carpet and held together either by a rope or a big shawl- 
strap. Provision is always made in the lowest two grades, and some- 
times in the upper two, for a separation of the sexes; while reserved 

* A branch, extending towards Jhang, was opened up from Wazirabad in 1895. 



78 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

carriages or compartments, may be had at additional expense by pre- 
vious arrangement. 

British officials are expected to ride first-class and British soldiers 
second-class. Natives and other Europeans, if they can afford it, may, 
and often do, travel in these grades also ; but the common people gen- 
erally are satisfied with third-class accommodations. Missionaries on 
long journeys usually ride second-class ; but on short trips, and in 
ordinary cases, they travel either intermediate, or third-class. 

The stations on an East Indian railway are usually very pretty, sub- 
stantial, one-storied brick structures containing a variety of waiting, 
dining and baggage rooms, telegraph and booking offices, verandas, 
pu?ikhas and all the other accommodations needed by travelers, while 
they are generally decorated with vines and flanked by tastefully ar- 
ranged flower beds or grass plots. In large centres, too, immense 
arched roofs cover the railway tracks and protect the incoming and 
outgoing trains from rain or sun. At these stations coolies are always 
present ready to carry luggage or do errands, while venders of fruit, 
sweets and curiosities wander from carriage to carriage offering their 
wares for sale and singing their peculiar but monotonous songs. Hired 
Hindu and Muhammadan water-carriers are also present, especially in 
warm weather, ready to supply the wants of passengers of their own 
faith ; and sometimes the latter will condescend to pour a little of the 
contents of his gkara into the hands, or the vessel, of a thirsty Chris- 
tian. 

While American railway travel may be more rapid and, in Pullman 
cars, more luxurious than East Indian, there can be no question that the 
latter has advantages for privacy, comfort and economy superior to 
that which is ordinarily experienced in the home land. 

Besides the railway carriages which have just been described, a great 
variety of conveyances may be found in India — some peculiar to the 
country ; others imported, or invented, by foreigners. 

In a few places the dak gari (pronounced dock garry) is still used. 
This, which may be seen in an accompanying illustration, is a four- 
wheeled, covered, box-shaped, spring-wagon, so arranged that the two 
occupants can either sit or lie at pleasure. The dak gari is carried 
with rapid speed (sometimes fifteen miles an hour) over smooth roads 
by horses, changed every five miles. Traveling by it, however, is 
expensive (from ten to thirty cents a mile for each passenger), and 
gradually railroads, or tongas, are taking its place. 



80 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

The tonga is a two-wheeled spring-cart in which the semi-circular 
bed is swung very low, with either one cross-seat behind, backed by the 
driver's, or two side-seats. Its cover is a low, semi-cylindrical, iron- 
framed, canvas-backed affair — intended to shield the occupants from 
either sun or rain. Luggage can be tucked under the seats, or lashed 
to the sides over flanges thrown out for the purpose. As in the case 
of dak garies, tonga horses — of which there may be one, two or three 
running side by side — are changed every few miles. This is rapidly 
becoming the favorite public vehicle for carrying travelers back and 
forth between hill stations and railways. 

The ekka (or yakka), of which illustrations may be seen elsewhere,* 
is a light, one-horse, covered, native cart whose spring comes alto- 
gether from the bamboos and slender poles of which it is largely 
composed. It has no seat — only a floor, less than three feet square, 
elevated higher than the wheels, on which the rider or riders (for there 
are often five or six of them) squat, or sit flat. As the wheels are ir- 
regularly made and wabble badly and the horses are often miserably 
trained creatures, ekka riding, in the posture described, is not always 
a pleasure. But it is sometimes adopted by missionaries on country 
roads and in going to the hills. It is cheap, only two cents a mile for 
the use of a whole ekka. 

The doli (or palanquin) is an ancient, Oriental conveyance, which 
has often been described. An illustration of it may be seen elsewhere. f 
Although far from luxurious, no mode of travel, when all goes well, is 
easier, or better for invalids and children, than by this, especially over 
rough roads, and in going to the hills it has been much employed. 
But, as it is somewhat expensive and slow, and bearers are becoming 
very unreliable, it is gradually passing away. 

Dandies and jhampans% are used much by ladies in hill stations, as 
also zxz khaiolas% for small children. All of these belong to the pal- 
anquin order, and are carried by men trained for the purpose. 

In large stations shigrams (shaped like dak garies) and carriages 
may be hired at a fixed hourly or daily rate for travel within the city 
limits. 

Besides such public conveyances, all sorts of private carriages are 
kept by English people. But spring-carts — some with and some with- 
out tops — are more common than anything else. These can be used 
to advantage on country roads, as well as those in the main station. 

* Page 367. f Page 135. % See illustration on page 49. 



PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CONVEYANCES. 81 

Missionaries occasionally have carriages or spring-wagons of their 
own, but a one-horse, two-wheeled vehicle, commonly called a tum- 
tum, is their standard conveyance. This has two seats back to back, 
and is useful under almost all circumstances. Sometimes riding horses 
or ponies are used by them (especially by the young ladies) in village 
work, while jinrickshas, drawn by coolies, are occasionally employed 
in going to and from city zenanas, or girls' schools ; nor are bicycles 
altogether unknown. 

Public conveyances of all kinds, and burden bearers are largely 
under the management and control of the government. When a man 
wants ponies, mules, bangiwalas, coolies, bullock carts, or camels, for 
carrying luggage, or when he requires palanquins, ekkas and other 
means of travel, it is generally necessary for him to address a note to a 
government official who has charge of the business, or to a semi-official 
agent, who (as for instance in the case of dak ghari and palanquin 
owners) has certain recognized privileges and responsibilities, through 
whom the requisite service is obtained. To some extent this arrange- 
ment means forced labor; but without it, in many cases, the traveler 
would be put to great inconvenience and often fail to get on at all. 
Besides, the employed, as well as the employer, are thus protected fully 
in their rights, and in many cases prefer working under a government 
order (Jiukvi) to the hap-hazard of a more voluntary method. 

Not without much annoyance and loss, however, does a foreigner 
travel in India by any other public conveyance than the railway. 
Whole chapters might be written of balky, sorebacked, wicked horses, 
unpunctual doli-bearers, dishonest coolies, tricky boat owners, and 
wretched conveyances. 

This part of my book would not be complete if I did not speak of 
the arrangements which a paternal government has made in India to 
accomodate the traveling public when they wish to stop, rest and 
refresh themselves. Serais, or native inns, are found in, many places, 
where for a small fee animals may be fed, victuals cooked and beds 
spread for the night. Dak (or stage) bungalows, also, have been 
erected on every main road at regular intervals, where Europeans 
may get every requisite for satisfactory lodging and eating at estab- 
lished prices — except bed clothing. This it must be remembered, is 
always provided by the traveler himself and must be carried with him 
wherever he goes. Some hotels, indeed, furnish the use of mattresses 
and bed clothing (perhaps at a little extra charge) ; but the rule in 
6 



82 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

India is that a tourist or a guest must have with him, as part of his 
personal luggage, everything of this kind which he needs. It is as 
necessary a part of his baggage as his changes of raiment ; and when- 
ever a sahib makes a journey you will be as sure to see among his 
effects a bundle of comforters, blankets and pillows, as a valise, a trunk, 
or a money satchel. With this exception, however, a regular dak bun- 
galow is provided with every needful requirement. It is only in 
remote districts and unfrequented regions that travelers are thrown 
entirely upon the mercy of residents, or compelled to carry their own 
provisions. All these advantages, of course, are a help to the mis- 
sionary and the Christian native laborer, as well as others, when they 
need them. 

But there are other means of communication in India besides those 
which accommodate passengers. 

One of these is the Post Office. The India Postal Service is one 
of the most perfect in the world. According to the census of 1891 
it numbers more than 8000 post offices and 71,000 miles of post roads. 
These are found in all parts of the country. Sometimes the mails are 
carried by railway and sometimes by tonga, but often by relays of 
runners, who travel in a jogging trot five miles an hour and keep up their 
movement night and day. The soft jingling of the bells of these 
carriers and the glitter of the heads of their mace-like carrying-staffs help 
to enliven travel on the country roads and at night often add to the 
weirdness and the romance of a journey. 

Arrangements are made for the carriage, not only of letters, postal 
cards and papers, but also of packages, to any part of India and the 
United Kingdom. Letters of an important character, too, can be 
registered and even insured, at some additional expense, while parcels 
can be sent, if desired, "value payable on delivery (V. P. D.)," just as 
express companies in America carry goods C. O. D. — the money 
received being returned to the sender of the parcel. Funds also can 
be transferred from one part of the country to another by postal 
order. 

All but two of these advantages attach also to communications with 
the foreign countries that are embraced in what is called the Postal 
Union, among which is our American Republic. One exception 
relates to parcels. Only books and other printed documents can be 
transmitted as such through the mails between India and the United 
States. Other articles are forbidden — chiefly perhaps on account of 



THE INDIA POSTAL SYSTEM 83 

tariff laws. The second exception is that of registered letters. Money 
orders, bills of exchange and letters of credit must take their place in 
sending funds. Nor are rates of postage excessive. One-half an 
anna, that is, about one cent, will carry a letter weighing half a tola, 
that is, about one-fifth of an ounce, to any part of British territory in 
India; and five times that amount will carry a letter weighing half an 
ounce to any part of the British Empire, or any Union country in the 
world. 

Several peculiarities of the India Postal System arrest the attention 
of a foreigner. One is that no extra charge is made for stamped 
envelopes, as is done in the United States. They can be had as 
cheaply as the stamps alone. This arrangement is made to encourage 
the use of envelopes among natives. Another singular thing is the 
permission given writers to cancel their own stamps. This is done 
to prevent their being pilfered by servants, or peons, on their way to 
the post office. But it does not of course supersede or in any way 
interfere with the official cancellation required by the postal department 
itself. Another characteristic is the universal employment of letter 
carriers and the great effort made to reach every resident and give him 
his mail in his own home. Every post office, as far as known, has its 
peons hired for this purpose, and each peon has his district, and to 
each is given all the mail matter of his own district ; and if a resident 
cannot wait until his letters and papers are brought to him in the 
regular way he (or his messenger) can find them only in the hands of 
the letter carrier, either at the time of the distribution of the mail, or 
while the carrier is making his circuit. If the addressee cannot be 
found after a thorough search, and no special directions have been 
left by him for the postmaster's guidance, his correspondence is 
forwarded at once to the dead-letter office. Scarcely anything is 
retained more than two or three days in the local offices themselves. 
Should mistakes, delays or villainous acts occur and proper notice be 
given, nothing can surpass the promptness and thoroughness with which 
the matter is investigated and remedied. And, to furnish all needful 
information in regard to everything connected with the postal service, 
a guide is published from time to time and sold at a nominal price ; 
while printed forms and blanks are supplied in any quantity when- 
ever required for postal purposes. Notices of a change in the time of 
the arrival or the departure of mails is also sent to every sahib's 
house. 



84 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



Another peculiarity is this : that every post office of any size is also 
a savings-bank, where small sums of money can be deposited for safe- 
keeping at a low rate of interest — to be drawn out at the pleasure 
of the depositor, according to fixed rules. This is a very convenient 
arrangement for the poor people of the country. They can thus save 
many a pice which would otherwise be squandered, or, what is worse, 
find its way into the capacious coffers of greedy and unscrupulous 
banyas. Nor are ordinary Anglo-Indian banks half so secure as the 
postal service institutions ; for the latter are guaranteed by the credit 
of the Indian Government itself. 

Scarcely inferior in excellence to the postal service in India is its 
telegraph system, which is also under the control of the government. 
About 40,000 miles of wire are up and in operation. Lines run to 
every District capital and every large town. Messages can be sent 
night and day — "deferred" for half a rupee; "ordinary" for one 
rupee and "preferred" for two rupees — with special rates for com- 
munications containing more than eight words. These are always sent 
in English as that tongue is found to be the most compact and the 
most convenient for telegraphic purposes. Connection is also made 
by ocean cables with all the other telegraphic systems of the world. 
If necessary a man at Sialkot, or Rawal Pindi, can hold converse any 
day with his friends in China, Europe or America. Telephones, 
however, are seldom found in India — if found at all. Nor is it likely 
that they will become common in that country soon — for the simple 
reason probably that they cannot be kept so completely under the 
control of the government, as can either railways or telegraphs, and 
should disaffection or mutiny arise, they might be made a means of 
great embarrassment and serious political trouble. It is supposed that 
even if a Mission would establish a system of telephonic communica- 
tion between its various houses in the same station the authorities 
would interfere and order its discontinuance. 





CHAPTER IX 

LINGUISTIC CONDITIONS 

Many Tongues in India— The Hindustani— The Punjabi— The Acquisition of Lan- 
guages — Conditions of Success. 

NDIA is a country of many languages. Of non-Aryan 
tongues alone Sir William Hunter, in his book entitled 
"The Indian Empire," gives a list of 107, besides thirty- 
one others that are termed closely related dialects. Of 
Aryan tongues also, which are directly descended from the Sanskrit 
and spoken by the great body of the people, there is a large number — 
the principal of which are the Hindi, the Punjabi, the Gujrati, the 
Marathi, the Urdu (or Hindustani) and probably the Bengali. 

The Hindustani (or Urdu) tongue is of later origin than most of the 
others. It sprang up during the eleventh century and afterwards in 
the camps of the Muhammadan conquerors of India; and, although 
based upon the Hindi, it contains an almost equal number of Persian 
and Arabic words — besides a considerable sprinkling of English. This 
tongue, as Whitney says, " has enjoyed more literary cultivation than 
any other of the recent dialects and is the lingua franca, the official 
language and means of general intercourse, throughout the whole pen- 
insula." It is used largely in -schools, is the language of men more 
than of women, of the bazar more than of the household, of cities more 
than of villages, and of Muhammadans more than of Hindus. Among 
the Muhammadans of Northwestern India, Persian is a very popular 

(85) 



86 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

tongue, and on account of its gracefulness is often employed at dur- 
bars and in making presentation addresses. For a long time it has 
been the French of the East. 

On the northern border of our field Kashmiri is spoken by some 
people and especially Dogri ; and, in Rawal Pindi, Pashtu is used by a 
few immigrants from Afghanistan. But Punjabi is the language most 
used by the masses. This language, however, has been much modi- 
fied by the Hindustani, and in no two Districts is it just the same. 
Indeed marked variations can often be observed within the limits of 
a few miles. Printed Punjabi books, too — of which, however, there 
are very few — present generally an archaic form of the speech, called 
the Gurmukhi ; although the Punjabi of to-day is not altogether un- 
represented in published literature. As education grows and intelli- 
gence spreads it is probable that Punjabi will become more and 
more assimilated to Urdu and perhaps be supplanted by it alto- 
gether. But at present it is very much loved by the people. They 
call it a mithi znban, a sweet tongue. It is the language of their child- 
hood, their mothers and their homes. English is, of course, taught 
in schools, and, being the tongue of their rulers, enjoys a peculiar 
prestige among educated people and some of them talk it very cor- 
rectly and even beautifully ; but as only 360,000 natives in the whole 
Indian Empire — that is, one in 800 — are reported in the last census 
as able to read and write it, there is at present absolutely no ground 
for the belief that it will eventually become the language of the 
masses. As for the English of poor whites and uncultured Eurasians, 
that often shows sad degeneration and, with its local idioms and 
peculiar accent, seems like a travesty of what it is intended to be. 

Urdu, or Hindustani, is the tongue which missionaries generally 
first undertake to learn when they go to India ; but in our scheme of 
studies Punjabi is early introduced and, as the years roll on, will be 
used more and more. A preacher, or a zenana worker, can accom- 
plish very little in our villages through any other language. As a 
means of understanding better the spoken tongues of the people, 
missionaries sometimes study also the Persian and the Arabic, or the 
Hindi and the Sanskrit. A breadth of view and a wealth of words 
are thus acquired which often prove highly beneficial. 

The acquisition of a language, so as to think, speak and write in it 
with fluency and power, is a great work and generally requires several 
years of patient labor. The eye, the ear, the hand, the tongue and 



LEARNING FOREIGN TONGUES 87 

the throat must all be trained. And never perhaps does a foreigner, 
commencing the study after he is twenty years of age, so learn it that 
his origin cannot be detected by a native. Generally, indeed, he has 
a marked alien accent. 

Hence the necessity of learning the tongue (or tongues) of the 
people is one of the great difficulties lying in the pathway of the mis- 
sionary who enters our foreign fields and one of the great obstacles to 
his success as a Christian laborer. Although English idioms, tones 
and defects (being those of the governing race) are as free from offense 
as any, and although, unlike the vernacular Arabic in Egypt and 
Syria, Indian vernaculars are not by any means regarded as sacred, 
or perfect, by those who speak them, still, imperfection in their use 
hinders much a preacher's usefulness; and herein generally lies a 
great difference between native and foreign evangelists. This is one 
reason why we must depend so largely on native help, and why the 
great apostles of India must be looked for, not among Englishmen, 
Americans or Germans, but among the Indians themselves. 

For the benefit of persons contemplating missionary work we ought 
also to remark here that success in overcoming linguistic difficulties 
depends even more upon natural characteristics of body, mind and dis- 
position than upon age. As a man is in his native English, so in a 
somewhat lower degree is he likely to be in any other language which 
he may seek to acquire. If he is slow, slovenly, inaccurate, hesitating, 
inelegant, unattractive or weak in his use of his mother tongue, so will 
he be also in his use of the Punjabi, or the Urdu. If he speaks, spells 
and writes well in the former, so with sufficient experience will he also 
do in the latter. Scholarship, eloquence and variety of speech, or 
their opposites, are simply the outgoings of the man. It matters little 
what medium of expression is employed. The man shines forth and 
cannot be materially modified. 

But previous experience in learning to speak and write foreign 
tongues is of immense advantage to a person in thus acquiring a new 
language ; and the larger the experience, the greater the advantage. 
This arises partly from the fact that his ear by such experience is better 
trained to distinguish sounds, partly because a man who can freely use 
more than one language is not so embarrassed, or prejudiced, by the 
laws and the peculiarities of his own vernacular, or in other words, is 
more ready to recognize and appreciate strange idioms, and partly 
from the fact that he has a larger stock of similar words and analogous 



88 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

forms of speech to which he can refer as a help to his understanding 
and an aid to his memory. 

Children of missionaries, too, who spend part of their early life in 
India, have a great advantage over others in learning the language of 
that country when they return at mature age to take up missionary 
work there ; and that, too, even when, as a matter of consciousness, 
they have entirely forgotten what they previously knew of these tongues. 
Their vocal organs, on account of early practice, are better adapted to 
make those sounds which do not occur in English ; while words long 
since forgotten readily come back again to the memory, or are at least 
more easily learnt than if they had never been known. 

The time necessary to acquire a fair knowledge of Urdu, or Pun- 
jabi, differs of course with different individuals. One year's study of 
them is required in our Mission before any one is allowed to assume 
any responsible work. But even then a missionary's attainments in 
this direction are generally very imperfect. Some advocate a prepara- 
tory period of two or even three years ; and certainly few can become 
really fluent or elegant extemporaneous speakers in the language of 
the country before the expiration of that length of time. Not that 
either of the above-mentioned tongues is remarkably difficult to ac- 
quire. Persian and French are doubtless easier to learn ; but Arabic 
and English are harder. 




!:<& 

§OM 



•v^'W" 



CHAPTER X 




MISSIONARY NEIGHBORS 

Some Unpleasant Facts — More of a Different Character — Aid in Evangelism, Educa- 
tion and Christian Conflicts — Inter-Mission Conferences and Organizations — ■ 
The Presbyterian Alliance — Presbyterian Union — Christian Literature. 

HRISTIAN neighbors have much to do with the policy, the 
comfort and the success of any particular Mission. 

Providentially we have had great reason for thankful- 
ness in this respect. Compared with previous decades, 
and some other Missions, our relation to outside Christian workers 
during the past ten or twelve years has been good, and continually 
growing better. 

True, unfavorable matters might be mentioned. Sometimes a lack 
of sympathy has been felt; sometimes the intention to ignore or reject 
our co-operation in various forms of religious activity has been mani- 
fest ; sometimes a bad example, or erroneous teaching, has tended to 
thwart our efforts for good ; sometimes our methods, and especially our 
aim to reach the depressed classes, have been severely criticised ; and 
sometimes our territory has been invaded, our converts and employees 
decoyed away from us, and our work in different places somewhat de- 
ranged. 

But, happily, we have been kept to a large extent from the en- 
croachment of those denominations which, on account of their peculiar 
views of church polity, sacramental grace, baptismal forms or the 
Spirit's leading, reject the obligations of a generally accepted mission- 
ary comity and feel at liberty to extend their borders wherever they 
see fit. Happily, too, there has been a growing disposition on the 
part of adjacent fellow-laborers to co-operate with us and seek our help 
in matters of common interest. 

Union in direct evangelistic work has not, indeed, been common — ■ 
just because it is not often practicable ; but instances of it might be 

(89) 



90 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

mentioned in bazar preaching at Sialkot and Khewra, in special ser- 
vices at Dharmsala during the summer of 1886, in several itinerating 
tours, and at melas (religious fairs). Connected with this might also 
be mentioned exchange of pulpit service by native pastors and preach- 
ers. 

•More mutual aid, perhaps, has been given one another by different 
religious bodies through their various educational institutions. Our 
High Schools have trained boys of other churches; and several male 
and female schools of other denominations have been patronized by 
our native helpers. The fruits of our Theological Seminaries are not 
enjoyed exclusively by the churches to which they severally belong; 
while the summer school for workers held in 1893 at Sialkot has been 
mentioned as a happy instance of mutual and profitable co-operation 
between the Scotch Mission there and ourselves. 

Through correspondence and conferences of various kinds also mu- 
tual sympathy has been aroused, different views exchanged, general 
principles of action evolved, and resolutions adopted, which have 
helped forward the common cause. 

Among the inter-mission conferences which have been held special 
mention might be made of local religious meetings, such as the Sialkot 
Conference of May, 1893, the Lahore monthly Missionary Conference 
which was established in 1890, the Punjab Ladies' Missionary Confer- 
ences of December, 1882, and February, 1888, the Inter-Mission Com- 
mittee on Popery, which met" June 12, 1890, the Semi-Centennial 
celebration of the Ludhiana Mission in December, 1884, and the great 
Decennial Conferences of India missionaries which were held about 
the close of the years 1882 and 1892. At all these meetings our own 
Mission had representatives, and at many of them one or more of our 
number read papers or made addresses. 

More regular and systematic co-operation was secured, however, 
through permanent organizations. The Association of Female Workers, 
having its centre at Mildmay Park, London, frequently brought 
together Christian ladies of every name in the same station for com- 
bined prayer and mutual profit. A Provincial Branch of the 
Indian Sunday-school Union was organized at the Sunday-school 
Convention in Lahore, December, 1890 ; and through it our Sabbath- 
school movements are kept in touch with all work of a similar kind in 
the whole country. The Punjab Bible and Religious Book Societies, 
which for some unaccountable reason had previously admitted only two 



THE PRESB YTERIAN ALLIANCE 91 

or three denominations into their membership and management, 
placed itself on a more liberal basis in December, 1890, and adopted a 
new set of rules by which workers in our church were also given the 
right to sit and vote in their general meetings, and by which one of 
our number was assigned a place on the Executive Committee. For a 
longer time, too, we have been associated with others of like ecclesi- 
astical polity in India through what is termed the Presbyterian Al- 
liance. 

The movement originating this began in January, 1871, and after 
three preliminary meetings reached a permanent form in 1875, when a 
constitution was adopted. The objects of the Alliance are to promote 
sympathy, co-operation, and a closer union among Presbyterian 
Churches in India — also to strengthen native congregations and make 
them a power for good. Five meetings of this Alliance have been 
held: the first in December, 1877 ; the second, in 1880; the third, in 
1883; the fourth, in 1886; and the fifth, in 1889. The first three 
were held in Allahabad; the fourth in Bombay; and the fifth in 
Calcutta. 

Through this organization matters of common interest have received 
special attention and the esprit de corps of our division of the great 
Christian army strengthened. Under the stimulus of action taken by 
the General Alliance of Reformed Churches, at their London meeting 
in 1 888, a movement in favor of ecclesiastical Union among the 
Presbyterians of India was started in the Lahore Presbytery of the 
American Presbyterian Church about the beginning of the year 1889 
and prosecuted through a Committee of the Presbyterian Alliance 
during the next two years. But difficulties of language, travel and ex- 
pense, differences of ritual and discipline, dissatisfaction with the basis 
proposed, the hitherto imperfect development of the native church and 
the foreseen depressing effect of organic union upon foreign support, 
soon led the majority to feel that such a union was impracticable and 
undesirable. Hence the effort to secure it was abandoned. 

February 27, 1894, a meeting of the representatives of various 
Presbyteries was held in Agra and resolutions were adopted favoring 
the ecclesiastical union of all churches speaking the Hindustani tongue : 
that is, the churches of Northern India from Darjiling to the Punjab ; 
but thus far the movement does not seem to have aroused much enthu- 
siasm or to have reached any practical conclusion. 

Whether the time will ever come for the formation of a closer 



92 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

alliance among the Presbyterians of India than that which now exists 
is questionable. Local and perhaps Provincial Unions of an ecclesias- 
tical character may eventually be effected; but as soon, almost, might 
we expect the formation of a Presbyterian Church for all Asia as tor all 
India. Diversities of language and condition are of too varied and 
permanent a character to promise such a consummation early, if ever. 
And certainly the arguments favorable to union in India are far less 
powerful than those which can be adduced for union in America or 
Great Britain.* 

But leaving this digression, we proceed to note a more useful and 
effective method of past co-operation, and that is in the department of 
Christian literature. The production in sufficient quantity of suitable 
newspapers, magazines, tracts and books for the direction of mission- 
aries and the instruction and edification of the native church, is a 
work so vast and varied and so dependent upon a large patronage that 
no one ecclesiastical body can accomplish it alone. While, therefore, 
our own laborers have contributed something to the general cause in 
this direction, as we shall see in its proper place, outsiders have 
returned the favor with compound interest. Such English periodicals 
as the Bombay Guardian (Independent), Indian Witness (Methodist), 
Indian Standard (Presbyterian Alliance), Indian S. S. Journal (S. S. 
Union), and Indian Evangelical Review (undenominational), and 
such vernacular publications as the Nur Afshan (American Presby- 
terian), Kaukab-i-Hind (Methodist) and Makhsan-i-Masihi (American 
Presbyterian), have not only been channels for the dissemination of 
our own literary productions, but, being taken extensively by our 
people, have been to them a constant means of education, information 
and stimulus. The notes on the International Series of Sabbath- 
School Lessons, which have been published at Allahabad and Lucknow, 
have also partly supplied a want among us not hitherto met by our 
own efforts. Religious text books, catechisms, biographies, works of 
controversy, monthly tracts, and Christian publications of every 
description have been to a considerable extent provided for us by Reli- 
gious Book Societies and the more private efforts of other ecclesiastical 
bodies, or their individual members. Those translations of the Scrip- 

* When native churches become independent, it is probable that unions will be 
formed, not so much on the basis of old denominational attachments, as on the basis 
of local propinquity or of causes more distinctively Oriental than Occidental in their 
character. 



SUMMAR Y 



93 



tures, moreover, which we mostly use, were made by persons outside 
of our bounds, and published by societies of an undenominational 
character. 

As a summary then of this whole section it may be said that our 
ecclesiastical and missionary neighbors have been on the whole highly 
beneficial to us in our local work — partly by refraining from encroach- 
ment and interference, and partly by giving us substantial aid where 
co-operation was needed. 




TAILOR BIRD. 



CHAPTER XI 




OUR SPECIAL FIELD 

Missions in India — Their History — Number of Laborers — Division of the Land — 
Missionary Comity — The Punjab — Missions Established There — The United 
Presbyterian Field — Its Growth and Size — Points of Historical, Geographical, 
Commercial and Scientific Interest. 

N account of the special efforts which have been put forth for 
its evangelization India has been regarded as the great 
Mission field of modern times. Of the 10,000 or 10,500 
missionaries now laboring in different parts of the world, 
more than one-fourth are located within the borders of the British 
East Indian Empire. 

The first Protestants to enter this field were Danes, namely, Bar- 
tholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Plutschau, who landed at Tranque- 
bar in 1706. These were followed at various periods during the 
eighteenth century by forty-seven others from Denmark, of whom the 
most distinguished was Christian Frederick Schwartz, called sometimes 
the Apostle of India. These missionaries met with a large degree of 
success in the southern part of the country ; but owing to their di- 
minished number in the early part of this century, the mission was 
finally abandoned and the fruits of its labor were transferred to the 
Church Missionary Society and the Society for the Propagation of the 
Gospel — both English Episcopal organizations. This fact largely ex- 
plains why the latter bodies make such a good display in statistical 
tables. 

Of existing societies the first to enter India was the English Baptist, 
which, under the leadership of John Thomas and William Carey, be- 
gan work in Bengal in the year 1793, over one hundred years ago. 
Other churches and organizations followed its example : the London 
Missionary Society, in 1798; the American Board, in 1813; the C. 
M. S., in 1814; the S. P. G. and the Wesleyan Missionary Society, 
(94) 



MISSIOXARY COMITY 95 

in 1817; the General Baptist Society, in 1822; the Church of Scot- 
land, in 1828; and so on, until now, as can be seen from the map 
on page 97, at least sixty different organizations are at work. 

So large, however, is the country (its area, including Burma, 
being about 1,560,000 square miles), and so vast the population 
(in 1 89 1, 288,159,672 souls), that Missions need not in the least 
degree conflict with each other. Supposing that there are 2200 
foreign missionaries actually on the ground,* 900 of whom are or- 
dained, and that the population at present is about 300,000,000, then 
there would be one missionary to every 700 square miles of territory 
and every 136,000 inhabitants, and one ordained foreign minister to 
every 1670 square miles of territory and every 334,000 inhabitants. 
Accordingly Missionary Associations, as a general thing, have tacitly 
settled on such a division of the field (all but large cities) that they 
can each work separately. Cities of great size are excepted, because 
they 1 are often necessary as centers of operation, and also because the 
evils of interference with each other, by overlapping Missions, are in 
such places reduced to a minimum. 

It has been a question with some how far missionary comity and 
courtesy should be carried in limiting church extension. Have re- 
ligious bodies the right to establish Mission boundaries between them- 
selves and others, beyond which neither party can pass ? Is not the 
command to all and each this : " Go ye into all the world "? Ought 
we not to follow the leadings of the Spirit? Should not every mission- 
ary society labor in those localities where she feels that she can work 
more effectively than others? Have we a right to sit still and see wide 
doors unentered and promising classes neglected, just because they are 
found within the limits of a neighbor's artificially formed territory? 
Ought not the liberty given various denominations in America to be 
extended to laborers in foreign Mission fields? 

As long as there are different denominations of Christians, based on 
other grounds of separation than those of locality, no doubt it must be 
conceded that, under ordinary circumstances, they each have the right 
to establish themselves wherever they discover a prospect of success 
without violating the laws of Christian courtesy; and it must be con- 
ceded also that in the course of time that policy which now prevails in 
America can properly, and will certainly, be pursued in missionary 
lands. But at present the conditions of the work in countries like 
* Not counting those who are at home on furiough. 



96 LIFE AND WORK IN INulA 

India are such as to demand a different course. So long as new con- 
verts are as weak and as poorly established in the faith as they now are, 
so long as they can be tossed about, not only with every wind of doc- 
trine, but also with every change of worldly prospects, so long as 
denominational strife continues to be the stumbling-block, and the 
hindrance, and the scandal which it now is (when carried on) in 
heathen lands, so long as the field remains as large, the harvest as 
great, and the laborers as few as they are at present j and every hour 
and every thought engaged in denominational struggles seems such a 
waste of valuable force, every consideration of brotherly love and zeal 
for the conversion of men demands that Missions keep within well- 
defined limits and see that they do nothing to distract or damage their 
neighbors' work ; and especially so when experience proves that en- 
croachment can seldom be made without taking mean advantages, 
starting unseemly controversies and marring spiritual life. 

It is generally conceded that one ordained foreign missionary, re- 
siding in the head town of a Civil District and laboring within its 
bounds, together with several native helpers of various grades, can hold 
that District as "occupied" territory. And even a native minister, 
acting as full superintendent, may take the place of the foreigner with- 
out impairing this claim. The presence of zenana missionaries and 
native zenana workers, too, will of course strengthen the claim very 
materially, as will also an increase in the number of ordained ministers 
and other laborers. Less force would be required to hold one of the 
divisions of a District, called a Tahsil, provided work had been com- 
menced there previous to the arrival in the metropolis of the District 
of a missionary force sufficient, as above-described, to hold the entire 
District. 

That portion of India which Providence gave our Mission as a 
special field, when it began work there in the year 1855, lies in the 
Punjab. 

The Punjab (or "land of the five rivers," as the name signifies,) is the 
extreme northwestern part of the Indian peninsula. In shape it may 
be compared to a great hour glass about 450 miles high and 160 miles 
through the waist, lying on its side, with its western end slightly tilted 
up. Its area (including the feudatory States) is 144,436 miles, and its 
population, according to the census of 1891, 25,061,956 souls. That 
is, the Punjab is a little larger than Prussia or the combined territories 
of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, New Jersey and Delaware, and con- 




INDIA MISSIONS — THEIR FIELDS AND DATES. 



Baptist (British) 1793 

London 1798 

American Board 1813 

Church of England 1814 

S. P. G. (English) 1817 

Wesleyan (English) 1817 

General Baptist (English) 1822 

Church of Scotland 1828 

Free Church of Scotland 1828 

American Presbyterian 1834 

Basel (German) *834 

American Baptist 1836 

Free Baptist (German) 1836 

Gossner's (German) 1840 

Leipzig (German) 1841 

Irish Presbyterian 1841 

Welsh Calvinistic Methodist 1841 

American Evangelical Lutheran 1842 

American Reformed (Dutch) 1853 

Moravian 1854 

American United Presl^yterian 1855 

Methodist Episcopal of America 1856 

United Presbyterian of Scotland i860 

Danish Lutheran 1861 

English Presbyterian 1862 

7 



26. Hermannsburgh (German) 1866 

27. Friends' Mission 1866 

28. Indian Home Mission 1867 

29. American German Evangelical 1868 

30. Canadian Baptist 1868 

31. Scotch Episcopal 1870 

32. Original Secession (Scotch) 1872 

33. Canadian Presbyterian 1876 

34. Swedish 1878 

35. Free Methodist (American) 1880 

36. Disciples (American) 1883 

37. Am. Ref. Presbyterian — present move- 

ment 1883 

38. Strict Baptist (English) 1861 

39. Faith Mission 1877 

40. Private Mission 

4T. Purity Mission 

42. Agra Medical 

43. Oxford Brotherhood „ 

44. Cambridge 

45. Salvation Army 1883 

Besides these are the Christian Alliance, the A. 
I. E. Society, the I. F. N. Society, the F. F. M. 
Association and many organizations of ladies. 

(97) 



98 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

tains a population greater than that of Austria and more than one-third 
of that found in the whole United States. 

A large part of the surface of the Province is covered by the Himal- 
ayan mountains which, in many irregular but more or less parallel 
ranges, stretch along its northern and northeastern boundary ; but the 
great body of the country is a gently sloping plain, leading from the 
hills on the one side to the sandy deserts on the other, and varying in 
height from iooo, or 1200, to 220 feet above the level of the sea. 
This plain is watered by five rivers — the Sutlej, the Beas, the Ravi, 
the Chenab and the Jhelum — from which the Province is named, and 
also by the great Indus into which they flow, and the Kabul river 
which forms the latter's principal western branch. 

Politically the Province is divided into two very distinct classes of 
territory, first, that of native feudatory States, and secondly, that 
which belongs directly to the British Crown and is wholly governed by 
its officers. The former comprises about twenty-six per cent, of the 
area and about seventeen per cent, of the population, and is portioned 
out among thirty-four semi-independent chiefs. The latter, which 
comprises the remainder of the territory and population, is divided into 
thirty-one Districts. Of the Native States, twenty-three lie among the 
Himalayas, and their Rajput dynasties are among the oldest ruling 
families in the world ; ten, mostly Sikh, hold the center of the eastern 
plains ; while Bahawalpur, a Muhammadan State, occupies the south- 
western corner of the Province. 

The first Mission to enter the Punjab was the American Presbyterian,* 
which began work at Ludhiana in 1834, and, after the complete con- 
quest of the Sikhs and the annexation of the Province by the British 
(March, 1849), immediately crossed over the Sutlej and established 
itself at Jalandhar and Lahore. Subsequently this Mission occupied 
also Amballa, Rawal Pindi, Hoshiarpur, Firozpurand other places, and 
by January 1, 1891, held a field embracing more than 6,000,000 
people. 

Following the Presbyterians, in 185 1, came the Church Missionary 
Society (Church of England), which began operations at Amritsar (its 
present chief center) and subseqenlly branched out into Kangra, La- 
hore, Peshawar, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan, Multan, Muzaffargarh, Kash- 
mir and other places, comprising in its present field over 7,000,000 
souls. 

About the close of the year 1856, a missionary of the Church of 

* Work was begun in Delhi in 181 8, but that was then outside of the Punjab. 



MISSIONS IN THE PUNJAB 99 

Scotland arrived at Sialkot and, by the first of January, 1891, this de- 
nomination had taken up work at Gujrat, Chamba, Wazirabad and 
other points to such an extent that its field might be said now to em- 
brace nearly 1,500,000 people. 

Several other societies and churches have also entered the Punjab 
Mission field, as may be seen by the map on page 97 — namely, the 
English Baptist (at Delhi and Simla), the Society for the Propagation 
of the Gospel (at Delhi), the Moravian (in Lahul, Ladakh, etc.), 
American Reformed Presbyterian (in Patiala), the Cambridge Mission 
(at Delhi), the American Methodists, Plymouth Brethren and perhaps 
others. But the number of missionaries employed by any one of these 
is not large, nor in the aggregate can they be said to have assumed the 
responsibility of evangelizing a population of more than 2,500,000. 

The American Associate Presbyterian Church, now merged in the 
United Presbyterian, was the third to commence mission work in the 
Province, beginning August 8, 1855. Its first station was Sialkot; but 
it subsequently extended its boundaries to Gujranwala, Jhelum, Gur- 
daspur and other points, until, at the time of the writer's visiting it in 
1880, its missionary claims extended over a territory comprising about 
2,500,000 souls. 

Since then various changes have taken place through which its 
boundaries have been curtailed in certain directions and extended in 
others. 

First came the addition of the District of Jhang, in the spring of 
1884. Jhang is a District of large size (5702 square miles) but com- 
paratively limited population (436,430 inhabitants), lying on both 
sides of the Chenab river, southwest of the District of Gujranwala. 
No railway as yet penetrates its borders ; no cantonment is located 
within it ; its European population consists of only a few families 
clustering around the seat of local government, between Jhang 
City and Maghiana ; its territory is largely desert ; its temperature is 
high in the summer, and its atmosphere very dry. For these reasons 
an appointment for work here is considered by civil officers one of the 
most undesirable in the Punjab. But it has some prospects of better 
irrigation, increasing population and more convenient railways ; while 
its people, as others elsewhere, are perishing from the lack of the bread 
of life. Hence its claims upon us as a neighboring field for work 
could not be denied. 

Many years ago our Mission made arrangements for a man to go to 



100 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



Jhang to begin labor there. But his departure was delayed a few 
weeks ; and while on his way thither he heard that another man had 
been sent before him to the same District by a neighboring Mission. 
So, deeming further progress unnecessary, he returned, and our designs 
for the occupation of the field were for the time abandoned. 

Christian work in the District, however, was never manned by our 
neighbors to such an extent that their occupation of the territory, ac- 
cording to the rules of missionary comity, could be considered estab- 
lished, "or exclusive; while from about the year 1880 it virtually ceased 
altogether. Under these circumstances a petition came to our Pres- 
bytery from the most prominent native Christian of the District pray- 
ing us to begin missionary labor there. 
This petition received a favorable hear- 
ing and representatives were sent 
thither, as well as to Montgomery, 
an unoccupied District contiguous to 
Jhang on the southeast, through which 
our employees were required to pass on 
their journey by rail to the latter Dis- 
trict, f 

About the same time also we entered 
the Bhera tahsil* of the Shahpur Dis- 
trict. Shahpur is a District of medium 
size, lying between Jhelum on the 
north, and Jhang on the south ; while 
Gujranwala skirts its southeastern bor- 
der. It has a dense population, and is more easily reached than Jhang. 
Of this District, Bhera is the most eastern, and in some respects the 
most important, tahsil* Its chief town, called also Bhera, is the 
largest in the District and contains about 18,000 inhabitants, mostly 
Hindus. The country around it, moreover, is fertile and well culti- 
vated ; while a branch of the Sind Sagar Railway, having its terminus at 
Bhera, connects it with the outside world. 

For some time Shahpur was claimed by another Mission which had 
established its center in Pind Dadan Khan, one of the tahsils of our 
Jhelum District ; but the claim never was sealed by important work, 
and in Bhera no missionary operations whatever had been carried on. 

*' Pronounced tie-seal. A tahsil is one of four or five subdivisions into which a 
District is divided, f See Note I on p. 414. 




HOOPOE. 



CHANGES IN OUR OWN FlELD 101 

Hence, as it could be conveniently reached by our Jhelum missionaries 
and formed a good substitute for Pind Dadan Khan, work was begun 
there by our people in the spring of 1884, and ever since has been 
pushed forward with energy. 

The next most important change in our field came with the readjust- 
ment of boundaries between our Mission and that of the Scotch Es- 
tablished Church. As early as 1861 a regular agreement was entered 
into by the two bodies according to which the Wazirabad road formed 
their separating line in the Sialkot District. Owing to a resolution 
passed by the Punjab Missionary Conference of 1 862-1 863, however, 
which the Scotch considered a nullification of the above-mentioned 
compact, this dividing line ceased to be recognized by them after the 
lapse of two or three years. From time to time our Mission, which 
took a different view of the question, objected to their course ; but it 
was not until work among the depressed classes was taken up by the 
Scotch also in 1885 that the evils of a "no boundary"- policy became 
manifest to all, and unendurable. It was then seen by both parties 
that the rivalry engendered under such a system was greatly marring 
the work of the Lord and that some kind of a settlement must be 
made. Negotiations to this end began early, but it was not until the 
spring of 1889 that a final agreement was reached. Then a new com- 
pact was entered into, affecting not only the Sialkot District, but also 
all our mutual claims to territory elsewhere, except in the direction of 
Jamu. By it we surrendered a part of the Sialkot field which we had 
under the first arrangement, and also Dalhousie in the Gurdaspur 
District; while a definite boundary line was drawn (about ten miles 
distant) around Wazirabad in the Gujranwala District. The good re- 
sults of a settlement, fully recognized and maintained by both parties, 
have since been clearly shown. 

The same spring (1889) a boundary was established between our 
Mission and the Narowal Mission of the Church of England, which 
had been operating in the Raya tahsil of the Sialkot District. For 
various reasons, one of which was encouragement (at first) by the 
Narowal missionaries, our representatives began and carried on work 
in the above-mentioned tahsil among the depressed classes. But when 
this work grew to large proportions strong opposition to it arose from 
our brethren in Narowal, and at last we accepted the proposition to 
establish a boundary between the two Missions, over which neither 
party should pass. This arrangement left the Narowal Mission in undis- 



102 LIFE AND WORK I FT INDIA 

turbed possession of a considerable field in and around that city, and 
entailed a loss on us of eight or nine hundred baptized converts. 

The last, and, in some respects, most important change affecting our 
field came in the year 1891, when the American Presbyterian Board 
and Mission transferred to our missionary jurisdiction the Rawal Pindi 
District and so much of the Hazara District as could be conveniently 
worked from Rawal Pindi and Murree as centers. 

Rawal Pindi District is one of the most prominent in the Punjab. 
It covers a large territory, contained in 1891 a population of 886,164, 
about 70,000 of whom are in its capital town, is skirted on one side 
by the Jhelum and on the other by the Indus river, is well supplied 
with railway facilities, comprehends both hill and plain country, pos- 
sesses one of the most popular health resorts (Murree) in North India, 
forms the best point of departure for reaching Kashmir, is the head- 
quarters of a Commissioner's Division, and contains a cantonment and 
a military garrison superior in size to any other in India, or (some say) 
in the whole British Empire. Hazara District bounds Rawal Pindi on 
the north and much of it is more accessible from the latter as a center 
than from any other mission point. It contained in 1891 over 5 15,000 
people. 

This field was first occupied by the American Presbyterians in 1856, 
the Rev. J. H. Morrison, D. D., being its pioneer missionary. Promi- 
nent among those who have since labored there may be mentioned the 
Revs. J. H. Orbison, Reese Thackwell, David Herron, J. F. Ullmann 
and Robert Morrison. A Boys' High School, primary schools for 
both boys and girls, zenana visitation, an organized church, street 
preaching, itineration and colportage represent the chief agencies and 
means through which they operated. By the transfer of the station 
to us we received three mission residences, several school buildings, a 
church, some minor pieces of property, and an organized congregation 
of twenty-four members. 

This change was made because the field could be more conveniently 
worked by us than by the Presbyterians, and because the latter wished to 
concentrate their force and use more of it in important departments of 
labor which otherwise would be neglected. It is a happy instance of 
that fraternal comity and co-operation which should always prevail 
among the followers of Christ. * 

In summing up the result of these changes we find that since 1880 
our Mission has increased in the extent of its territory from 11,000 to 
* For an additional change see Note 1, p. 414. 



PLACES OF HISTORICAL INTEREST 103 

more than 23,000 square miles and in population from about 2,500,000 
to nearly 4,500,000 souls; that is, it is now more than twice as large as 
Belgium, about half as large as New York, and more than half as large 
as Pennsylvania or Tennessee ; while its population is greater than that 
of Scotland, Ohio or Illinois. Compared with other Punjab Missions 
in these particulars, it ranks third (as before), but only a little below 
the American Presbyterian, which lost largely by the changes that 
increased our field. Comparing its different parts with one another, 
we find its densest population in the Gurdaspur and Sialkot Districts* 
and its most sparsely settled region in West Gujranwala and Jhang.j" 

Within the limits of our special field are found many points of his- 
torical, geographical, commercial and scientific interest. 

Its chief rivers are referred to in the Rig Veda. Herodotus and 
Megasthenes speak of the Indus. The Jhelum is the Hydaspes of the 
Greek historian Arrian ; the Chinab, the Acesines ; the Ravi, the 
Hydraotes ; and the Beas, the Hyphasis. Jhelum City is mentioned 
in the Mahabharat. Sialkot according to tradition was founded by 
Raja Shal, who is named in the poem. About the time of Christ it 
was the capital of Raja Risalu, a renowned Punjab hero and the sub- 
ject of a thousand legends. Taxila of the Ravval Pindi District owes 
its origin to the Takkas, a Scythian tribe who entered the country 
about 600 r. c, and at the time of Alexander's invasion, 300 years 
later, was the richest and the most populous city between the Indus and 
the Jhelum. Rawal Pindi itself, under the name of Gajipur, was the 
capital of the Bhatties in days almost as ancient ; while the Turanian 
Ghakkars, as early perhaps as 513 b. c, began to settle near Jhelum and 
laid the foundation of that harassing power which so long resisted 
Muhammadan invasion, and was not thoroughly crushed until the 
year 1830. When Alexander invaded the Punjab he crossed the 
Indus at Attock (or perhaps Ohind, a few miles northeast of 
that place,) and the Jhelum at Jilalpur, near which he fought his 
decisive battle with Porus and founded the memorial cities of 
BucephalaJ and Nicaea.§ Asarur, in West Gujranwala, is another 
place of ante-Christian origin. It was at first called Taki from the 
Takkas who founded it ; and when the celebrated Chinese pilgrim, 

* In Sialkot 552 to the square mile. f In Jhang 72 to the square mile. 

I In honor of his famous horse Bucephalus which died there. 

\ In honor of his victory over Porus and the allied Punjabi chiefs. 



104 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



Hiouen Thsang, visited the Punjab, 633 a. d., it was the capital of 
the whole country. 

Buddhism, especially that of Asoka's reign, has left the marks of its 
ancient presence in the stupas, or topes, which are found at Asarur, 
Taxila, Manikiala, Rawal Pindi, and other points. 

Several cities are celebrated for their connection with the different 
Muhammadan dynasties. Muhammad Ghori placed a garrison at 
Sialkot about 1154 a. d. Bhera escaped great injury from Baber in 
15 19 only by paying a fine of two lacs of rupees, and was sacked 
by Ahmed Shah's general, Nur-ud-din, in 1757. The extensive 
fortress at Rotas, near Jhelum, was built by Sher Shah in 1540, to 
overawe the Ghakkars. The Attock fort was erected by Akbar in 

1579-1583, and the ruined fortifica- 
tion at Shekhopura, in West Gujran- 
wala, by his son Jahangir, who lies 
buried near Lahore. Pasrur, Emin- 
abad and Kalanaur were all promi- 
nent places during the reign of the 
Mughals. At Kalanaur, Akbar the 
Great, the ablest of the Mughal 
emperors, was crowned February 15, 
1556, and the platform on which the 
ceremony took place is still standing. 
Gurdaspur, Ramnagar, Sialkot, Eminabad, Jhang, Chiniot, Akalgarh, 
and especially Gujranwala, were also closely connected with the 
Sikh rule. 

Gurdaspur was founded by Banda, a Sikh rebel, in the beginning 
of the eighteenth century. Sialkot contains a celebrated shrine of Baba 
Nanak, the first Sikh Guru, and a fine temple, with a high spire, built 
by Raja Tej Singh, is seen for many miles around. Eminabad possesses 
a sacred Sikh tank, and Chuharkanna a sacred mound — both memo- 
rable for their association with the founder of Sikhism. Gujranwala 
was not only the birthplace of Ranjit Singh, "the Lion of the 
Punjab," but also the capital of both his father and grandfather, and 
the home of many Sikh chiefs. Under a mausoleum there, erected to 
the memory of Ranjit Singh's father, is preserved a portion of the 
ashes of the great Maharaja himself. Ramnagar, which was founded 
by the Muhammadans and first called Rasulnagar, was stormed and 
taken by the same great ruler in 1795 ; and near that city, in 1848, an 




LIZARD. 



BUDDHIST TOPES AND OTHER MOUNDS 105 

indecisive battle was fought between Sher Singh and the English 
under Lord Gough. 

Intimately connected with British Rule also, may be mentioned 
Rawal Pindi, Sialkot and Jhelum, wnere military garrisons are estab- 
lished, and Murree, which was for some time the summer seat of the 
Punjab Government. Rawal Pindi, moreover, was the point where 
Lord Dufferin and the Amir of Afghanistan met in the great durbar 
of April, 1885 ; while Sialkot and an island in the Ravi, near Gurdas- 
pur, are historically associated with the Indian mutiny. 

Of all past dynasties, too, remains are found in the form of ruins, 
coins, specimens of pottery or special memorials. Reference has 
already been made to the Buddhist topes. These are monuments of a 
peculiar shape intended for the preservation of sacred relics — especially 
what are called "the seven precious things:" namely, gold, silver, 
lapis lazuli, crystal, red pearl, diamond and coral. Most of the 
topes now in existence are simply ruined mounds. 

And there is a vast number of other mounds also, accumulated by 
the erection, the destruction and the re-erection of towns, or cities, 
and the continuation of such processes from century to century. Many 
of these mounds have been abandoned for other sites and now stand 
solitary, covered with potsherds and brickbats — dry, barren hillocks, 
dotting the Punjab plains and utilized often as Muhammadan burying 
grounds. Others still underlie cities and raise them up to a con- 
spicious height. Some have been excavated and thus been led to 
yield up their treasure of old coins and their other memorials of past 
ages. Every conqueror, every dynasty of rulers, and almost every 
prince in this way furnishes the evidence and the date of his presence. 
No source of ancient history in the Punjab is so general, so definite 
or so connected, as the relics that are thus exhumed and found for sale 
in many bazars. The vast ruins of Rotas, Attock, Taxila and other 
points, are well worth a visit, too, simply on account of their size, 
their variety and their architectural peculiarities. Those at Taxila are 
said to be the most extensive in the Punjab. 

Nor is our field destitute of objects of geologic and geographic in- 
terest. Of these may be mentioned the curious and picturesque 
features of the Chinab at Chiniot, the Indus at Attock and the Ravi at 
Madhopur, as well as the remarkable salt mines of the Jhelum District 
and the notable hills of Jhelum and Rawal Pindi — to say nothing of 



106 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



the snow-capped Himalayas whose silvery outlines form such a striking 
peculiarity of our northern and northeastern outlook. 

Of peculiar manufactures also, both native and foreign, our field 
furnishes its due share. Sialkot produces its damascene work, its in- 
laid cutlery, its phulkaries and its paper; Jhang, its inlaid wood-work 
and large-checked, blue-and-white cloths ; Bhera, its green-handled 
daggers and knives; Gujranwala, its blankets; Dhariwal its woolen 
fabrics ; and Sujanpur, its sugars. 

But more interesting and more important than any of these things, 
from a missionary point of view, are the people of the country — their 
character and their religion — subjects which will occupy our attention 
in the next chapter. 




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CHAPTER XII 

OUR SPECIAL FIELD— ITS PEOPLE 

Punjabies and the Inhabitants of India — Their Race and Physical Characteristics — . 
Their Occupations, Village Life, Wages, Clothing and Religion — A Compara- 
tive Census — Modern Hinduism Described — Hinduism in the Punjab — Sikh ism 
— The Jains — The Buddhists — The Arya Samaj — The Parsees — The Muham- 
madans and Muhammadanism — Low-Caste People — Europeans, Eurasians and 
Native Christians. 




UNJABIES, and, indeed, the great body of the people of 
India, are, like ourselves, Caucasians of the Aryan or Indo- 
European race. It is remarkable how many persons are 
seen there whose form and features remind one of counter- 
parts whom he has left behind him in Europe or America. 

But there is a difference notwithstanding. In size they are usually 
smaller than Americans and in color darker. Their hair and eyes are 
almost universally black, and their complexion of every shade from 
buff to brown — all made so probably by the heat of a tropical sun ; 
and among the lower classes are often found peculiarities of counte- 
nance, and depth of color, which plainly suggest amalgamation with 
some other race. 

In many places, chiefly northward, Pathans, that is Indo-Afghans, 
are found, who claim to be of Israelitish descent and who, by their 
greater stature, more prominent features and fiercer character, present 
a marked contrast to the rest of the population. Mongolians are seen 
in the persons of occasional Chinamen, and also of Gurkha soldiers 
from Nepal, who compose several regiments of the British army ; while 
Parsees, who were originally Persians (as their name indicates), and 
Abyssinians are occasionally met with ; Europeans also (Englishmen, 
Germans and others,) of course frequently appear. 

Climate, religion, despotic government and other causes have com- 
bined to modify the natural characteristics of the Hindu people — ■ 

(107) 



108 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



diminishing their energy, persistence of purpose, self-poise, practical 
wisdom and general intellectual caliber; while of true historical in- 
stinct and capacity for original scientific investigation they possess 
little or nothing. But they have wonderful (though unbalanced) philo- 
sophical, or metaphysical, acumen (or rather, imagination), and great 
aptitude for the acquisition of language; while their taste for music 
and skill in producing it, either with voice or instrument, is greater 

than those of some other 
Orientals. As yet mod- 
ern education has af- 
fected only a small per- 
centage of their number ; 
but the ability of many 
to acquire it is unques- 
tioned. 

As to occupation, al- 
most all the different 
trades and professions 
which characterize civil- 
ized and half-civilized 
life are represented 
among them, and usually 
these are transmitted 
from generation to gen- 
eration through heredi- 
tary channels; but in 
no department do they 
rise to the highest degree 
of excellence. Their 
methods of tilling the 
soil, preparing food, building a house or manufacturing garments 
(although reasonably efficient) are still primitive and slow; while 
Hindu art, of which much has been said, secures admiration more 
on account of its singularity,- or because it is produced by hand alone, 
than on account of its surpassing merit. 

In the Punjab and in India generally, as in other Oriental countries, 
almost all the people live huddled together in towns and villages, 
many of which are surrounded by walls, or are at least virtually walled 
from the custom of joining together the outside circle of houses and 




CARPENTER. 



WAGES AND CLOTHING 109 

building them without low exterior windows. This habit arose in 
unsettled times, and under bad government, through the fear of job- 
bers and bandits. Some of these towns are composed almost entirely 
of sun-dried brick and mud dwellings ; others are largely built of more 
solid materials. Some are chiefly Hindu towns ; others, principally 
Muhammadan ; others contain an equal proportion of the adherents 
of each of these faiths ; while near almost every town, village or city, 
but separated from it by a small alley, is a quarter set apart for the 
residences of low-caste people, called a tatti. 

Owing to the great density* of the population, the past ravages 
of war, and other causes, wages are low and poverty general. Com- 
mon laborers (coolies) get only five or six cents a day, and skilled 
mechanics little more than twice as much. Hence, although families 
club together in a patriarchal manner and thus make the most of what 
they have, their style of living seldom rises above the bare necessaries 
of life, and often does not reach that point. Mud houses are more 
general than any other; clothing consists only of a few cotton gar- 
ments (cloths), thrown around the body; and coarse wheaten, corn or 
millet cakes, with an occasional dish of rice, furnish the ordinary 
food of the people. A small percentage of the educated, especially 
among those who are Christians or who are in government service, 
aspire to the habits and apparel of Europeans ; but only a few, even of 
those who are called rich, are disposed, or able, to carry this tendency 
to any high degree, f 

Ordinary Punjabi male attire consists of the following five articles : 
first, a langoti or loin cloth, which is often very small ; secondly, a 
dhoti, or about four yards of cotton muslin (English calico), wound 
around the waist and covering both thighs and legs as far as the knees, 
or lower ; thirdly, a chadar, or cotton muslin shawl, two or two and 
a half yards square, worn around the shoulders and over the whole 
body (head included) in sleep; and fourthly, z.pagri, that is, a turban, 
of four yards of muslin or upwards wound around the head ; lastly, 
slipper-like shoes called jutian. Coolies often dispense with all except 
the first and the last two articles of apparel. Some have a woolen 
chadar in winter. Some add a kurta of cotton cloth to their ward- 
robe. This is either like a waistcoat, or like a European's shirt worn 

* In 1891 the average for all India including Burma was 185 to the square mile; 
for the Punjab including Kashmir, nearly 174; for our field, about 187; for the Sial- 
kot District alone, 552. -j-See also Chapter VI, pp. 65, 66 and 121. 



110 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

outside. Muhammadans of some means often wear very wide-legged 
paejamas ; and Hindus, of like standing, paejamas whose legs at the 
lower extremity are close-fitting like tights. All truly native garments 
are destitute of buttons. The use of buttons indicates progress. 

People who are rich, and especially people of high rank, add chogas 
(robe-like gowns) and other articles of dress to their attire and make 
their clothing of silk, gold-cloth and other gorgeous and expensive 
materials ; and in durbars they present a striking appearance. 

Ordinary female attire consists of a chadar worn over the head as 
well as the shoulders, a kurta, paejamas of a very baggy description, 
but tight-fitting at the ankles, and jutian. Hindu women sometimes 
wear skirts, and a few castes substitute for the kurta a garment cover- 
ing less of the upper part of the body than that does. Jewels are worn 
by all classes in the nose and the ears, as well as on the head, the arms 
and the ankles, and they are made of various materials ranging from 
glass to pure gold and diamonds. 

As to religion, twenty per cent, of the whole population of India are 
Muhammadans and seventy-two per cent. Hindus, or more correctly 
seventy-six and one-half per cent., if we include among the number 
forest tribes, Sikhs and Jains.* 

In the Punjab, however, the proportion is very different. Of these, 
according to the census of 1881, Muhammadans formed about .557 of 
the population; Hindus .377; Sikhs .059; Jains, .002 and all others 
.005 ; and this is doubtless about the present proportion of these differ- 
ent classes. 

Modern Hinduism is the resultant of beliefs and influences which 
have been operating upon the. Aryan race during the past 3000 years 

*The following comparative table is taken from the census of 1891 : 

Hindus, 207,654,407 

Mussalmans, 57,365,204 

Forest Tribes (animal worshipers), 9,302,083 

Buddhists, 7,101,057 

Christians, 2,284,191 

Sikhs, 1,907,836 

Jains, 1,416,109 

Parsees, 89,887 

Jews, 17,180 

Atheists. Agnostics, etc., 289 



Total, 287,138,243 
Unclassified addition in corrected returns, 1,021,429 

Total, 288,159,672 



MODERN HINDUISM 111 

or more. Theoretically it is pantheistic, but practically polytheistic. 
Accepting three original and supreme manifestations of the eternal 
spirit — Brahma, Vishnu and Siva (the Tri-murti) — it has admitted into 
its pantheon a multitude of gods either related to them by marriage, 
descent or service, or identified with them through the principle of 
incarnation or special embodiment. These are presented to the eye in 
the form of idols, pictures, persons, animals, tombs or natural objects, 
and are worshiped by prayer, genuflection, prostration, dancing, sing- 
ing, bell-ringing, incense-burning, gifts of flowers, food or clothing, 
water libation, animal sacrifices, repetition of the divine name or 
mantras, prostitution, and in other ways. Hindus believe in the effi- 
cacy of charms and asceticism, in astrology, exorcism, necromancy, 
witchcraft, the evil eye, and other forms of superstition. They also 
believe in the transmigration of souls and make salvation to consist in 
their final absorption into the Supreme Brahm, of whom (or which) 
indeed they really form a part. Brahmans, their hereditary priests, are 
fed, worshiped and obeyed as divine, and form the highest of a grada- 
tion of castes which are supposed to have their origin, not only in 
differences of race, occupation and personal merit, but also in the will 
of God. 

Hindus of the Punjab, as a general thing, neglect the worship of the 
great gods and confine their attention to local deities, or those benevo- 
lent and malevolent beings which are supposed to affect their daily 
life; and their acts of worship change in frequency and earnestness 
according to their own varying circumstances and necessities. Brahma 
worship is said to be unknown and Vaishnavism,* as a sect, is confined 
altogether to the Brahmans. Shivalas, that is, temples of Siva, are 
common, and so are images of Ganesh (the elephant god), Hanuman 
(the monkey god) and Krishna (the tricky god). As in other parts of 
India, the most numerous temples are those devoted to Siva, which 
contain a combined linga and yoni, with their accompanying image of 
a bull — the gross and indecent symbols of the reproductive power of that 
god ; while on the hills one frequently meets with the iron trident of 
the same deity under his title of Mahaveda. Shrines of Sitala, the small- 
pox goddess, are located near towns and villages j and when that terrible 
disease is prevalent, these are often visited for the purpose of obtaining 
deliverance from its dreaded power. Resort is also had to all sorts of 
charms and superstitions to accomplish the same object or avert some 
* The worship and worshipers of Vishnu. 



112 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

other evil. Of trees, the deodar, pipal and banyan are worshiped 
more than others ; and of animals, the cow species — for which there is 
such a veneration that Brahminy bulls roam the country at their own 
free will, and he who kills or injuries one, or indeed any of his species, 
is in danger of losing his life. Snakes are also worshiped by some 
tribes. 

Women, as a rule, are more devoted Hindus than men ; and in 
family life, with its events of birth, second birth, betrothal, marriage, 
death, burial and sraddha (worship of ancestors), we find the most 
persistent religious rites. But public festivals, occurring at established 
intervals in honor of particular gods, are common and secure the at- 
tendance and aid of both sexes and of all classes, and do more perhaps 
than anything else except caste (whose rules are rigidly observed) to 
establish and perpetuate the system of which they form a part. 

Sikhism, of whose adherents eleven-twelfths live in the Punjab, has 
passed through several stages since its rise 400 years ago. 

Its first and most distinguished teacher (guru), Baba Nanak, like 
Buddha, revolted against the ceremonial and social restrictions of 
Hinduism and sought a compromise of religions — especially of the 
Muhammadan and Hindu faiths, in the declaration of one God for 
all and in the emphasis which he laid upon good deeds and quiet con- 
templation. He discouraged caste, respected Muhammadan as well as 
Hindu teachers and preached repentance. But he believed in the 
transmigration of souls, in veneration of the cow, in abhorrence of the 
hog and in abstinence from all flesh as food. 

The fourth guru, Ram Das (1574 to 1581), founded Amritsar, which 
became the Jerusalem, or the Mecca, of Baba Nanak's followers and 
the seat of their great temple — the Golden. 

The fifth guru, Arjan (1581 to 1606), was a remarkable organizer, 
systematized the faith and practice of the sect and gave it a written 
rule of faith in the Granth, whose veneration is its chief form of idola- 
try. He also exhibited considerable taste for trade and politics. 

Har Govind, the sixth guru (1606 to 1645), was a warrior, changed 
what was before a religious sect into a military society and started a 
policy — the reverse in many respects of that of the founder of Sikhism 
— which was followed by all his successors down to the days of British 
rule. 

But Govind Singh, the last guru (1675 to 1708), modified the char- 
acter of Sikhism more than any of his predecessors. Following the 



THE SIKHS AND THE JAIXS 113 

example of his Muhammadan enemies, he made his religion the basis 
of political power ; and, in pursuit of this object, he abolished caste, 
instituted the Khalsa, or, "society of the liberated," and gave his 
people outward signs of their faith — such as the unshorn hair, the short 
drawers, the title Singh (lion), the wearing of steel, and abstinence 
from tobacco. 

The military and political taste thus infused into Sikhism and culti- 
vated by the Govinds, culminated in the remarkable career of Ranjit 
Singh, who became King of the Punjab and one of the greatest rulers 
of India. 

At present the Sikhs are generally loyal to the British Government 
and abstain from political intrigue ; but they are a very brave people, 
exhibit a fine physique, and make good soldiers and good policemen. 
In point of education, however, they are surpassed by some of their 
neighbors, and in point of religion they have greatly degenerated. 
Although willing to eat from the hands of Mussulmans, caste is as 
strictly followed by them as by Hindus proper, and low-caste people 
who adopt their faith (called Mazhabi Sikhs) are kept at a distance 
and excluded from the higher privileges of the community. Sikhs 
also reverence Brahmans, worship deities and practice their idolatrous 
and superstitious rites. In short, they have substantially assumed (or 
resumed) the place of a Hindu caste. 

Much the same may be said of the Jains also, about whom opinion 
is divided as to whether they are degenerate Buddhists or an independ- 
ent, and perhaps earlier, sect of Hindus, exhibiting originally many 
of the same principles. True, these people still hold doctrines and 
practices which lean toward Buddhism ; and their reverence for ani- 
mal life is carried to such an extreme that devotees brush their own 
pathway, strain their drinking water and wear a cloth over their 
mouths for fear they may tread upon, swallow or inhale some living 
thing. They are, moreover, peculiar in reverencing twenty-four beati- 
fied saints, chief of whom are Parasnath and Mahavira. But they also 
recognize the whole Hindu pantheon as fit objects of worship, and 
resemble Hindus in their family rites, their wedding and funeral cere- 
monies, their observance of caste, their reverence for the cow, their 
fasts and their pilgrimages. Indeed, they call themselves "good Hin- 
dus." Unlike the Sikhs, Punjab Jains are comparatively well edu- 
cated and almost all of them are traders and live in cities. They be- 
long also, as a rule, to the Banya or the Bhabra castes. 
8 



114 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

Of Buddhists, a very few are found in two hill Districts of the Pun- 
jab — Lahul and Spiti ; but even these are greatly Hinduized and can be 
scarcely distinguished from their neighbors. As Buddhism every- 
where has discarded the atheism of its founder and become practically 
idolatrous, so what is left of it in India has in various degrees re-ab- 
sorbed the doctrines and the practices of the faith against which it was 
originally a protest, although in so doing it has in turn exercised a re- 
acting influence upon Hinduism itself. 

Of the reforming Hindu sects which have lately arisen in India, the 
Arya Samaj is the only one which has made much stir in the Punjab. 
This was founded by Dyananda Saraswati, who died at Ajmere in 
1883, at the age of fifty-nine. As the name suggests, it is distinctively 
Indian, national and anti-foreign in its character. Hence, although it 
recognizes and acknowledges many of the absurdities of modern Hin- 
duism, it claims that these are corruptions of the Hindu faith which 
have arisen in the course of ages, through a departure from the teach- 
ings of the Vedas — books which they, like other Hindus, accept as of 
divine origin, and claim to hold in great reverence. Like the Brahma 
Samaj it rejects pantheism and polytheism ; but its theism is akin to 
deism, lacking warmth and enthusiasm. It also opposes ceremonial 
religion, asceticism, idolatry and (theoretically, but not practically) 
caste. And more than this, it rejects the doctrine of incarnation, 
atonement, inspiration and miraculous divine intervention, chiefly be- 
cause of their affinity to Christian ideas. On the other hand it retains 
a belief in the doctrine of transmigration, and, under the influence of 
its anti-foreign bias, claims that the Vedas are not only the source of 
such Christian beliefs as it sees fit to approve, but also of all modern 
inventions and scientific theories. Against the Bible and whatever is 
distinctive in Christianity, it takes a determined and bitter stand, and 
by means of public teaching, tracts and books, seeks as much as possible, 
to propagate its tenets and obstruct the efforts of Christians. Its 
"church" buildings, its meetings upon the Sabbath when people 
generally have most leisure, its reproduction in the vernacular of such 
infidel objections to the Scriptures as have originated in the West, and 
its public opposition to our bazar preaching, form distinctive features 
of Punjab religious life. And among educated young men it has 
great success, too. There are many flourishing societies of Aryas in 
the Punjab and an Anglo-Vedic college, as well as a leading paper 



ARYAS, PAR SEES AND MUHAMMADANS 



115 



called the Arya Pairika, in Lahore, both of which represent the inter- 
ests of this class of Hindus. 

Besides being opposed by missionaries, however, this sect has been 
resisted by orthodox Hindus, and very justly too, on the ground that 
it misrepresents the teachings of the Vedas. A movement having this 
object in view was started in 1887, through which several Sanskrit 
Schools were established, at least 400 societies organized, lecturers 
sent into various parts of the 
country, a great convention 
held at Delhi in November, 
1890, and money raised to 
found a college in that city. 
As the result of these efforts 
many abandoned the Samaj 
and returned to their idols. 

Of Parsees, who are modern 
Zoroastrians and fire worship- 
ers, very few are found in the 
Punjab ; but these few are gen- 
erally prominent and wealthy 
merchants. Bombay and Surat 
are the chief centers of this 
sect. They are all descendants 
of Persians, who were driven 
from central Asia to India by 
Muhammadan persecution, 900 
or 1000 years ago. 

Another religious division of 
Punjabies and in point of num- 
bers the most important of all, 
is that of Muhammadans. The 
readers of this book know that 

Muhammadans acknowledge only one God, deny the divinity of Christ, 
reject idols, accept Muhammad as the last and greatest of the prophets, 
claim the Koran to be inspired and superior to all previous revelations, 
and in earlier ages employed the sword to propagate their faith. They 
entered India nearly 1300 years ago, and through a succession of 
dynasties, the greatest of which was the Mughal, for more than 1000 
years exercised imperial authority over a large part of the country, 




I 



B 




PARSEE. 



116 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

and by force or otherwise obtained many converts to their faith. 
And now we find that they comprise one-fifth of the whole population 
of the British East Indian Empire, more than one-half of the inhabi- 
tants of the Punjab and nearly three-fourths of the people living within 
the limits of our special Mission field. 

But the Muhammadans of India exhibit characteristics different from 
those of their invading ancestors as well as their coreligionists else- 
where. This has been caused partly by the great addition once made 
to their number of insincere and half-assimilated converts. Centuries 
of comparative inactivity in the presence of entrenched idolatry also 
have helped to quench their fiery zeal and modify their peculiar 
traits. Hence we find that they have become greatly Hinduized. All 
observe caste so far that they will not eat or smoke with any but their 
own brethren.* All reverence tombs, saints and shrines and places 
of pilgrimage. Almost all cherish heathen superstitions. Many tribes 
of converted Mussalmans retain and fee Brahmans ; while some 
actually employ them to conduct their marriages according to the 
Hindu ceremonial, only adding the Muhamraadan ritual, as a legal 
precaution. 

Still Muhammadans on the whole manifest great attachment to their 
own sect and are ready to propagate it in every possible way. Their 
three-domed mosques {niasjids) f are found in city, town and village, 
kept in good repair, and are much frequented by zealous worshipers. 
Their forms of prayer are observed in public and private, at appointed 
hours, by thousands of the unabashed faithful. Their fasts, feasts and 

*The remembrance, too, of the Hindu castes from which Muhammadan families 
originally sprang is generally preserved by them with pride and made to influence 
their social and industrial life — just as it is also among the Sikhs, the Jains and 
people of other religions — Christians not excepted, I am sorry to say. And the 
course of the government in taking the census has a tendency, moreover, to perpetu- 
ate this class feeling ; since it requires every one in giving his name to state his 
caste, and hardly a Hindu caste can be mentioned which is not represented, in the 
reports, among the adherents of other faiths. For instance, of thirty-three major 
castes named in the Sialkot Gazetteer of 1883-4, only two are without representa- 
tives among the Muhammadans, and only six without representatives among the 
Sikhs ; while there are five castes reported as entirely, and eight as almost entirely, 
Muhammadan — some of them having been added to the general catalogue by Islam 
itself. Nor is anything said here about the twenty-two minor castes which are 
found in the same District. 

f Muhammadan architecture in India differs from that of Egypt, Syria or Con- 
stantinople. See illustration, p. 329. 



SKEPTICS AND LOW-CASTE PEOPLE 



117 



holidays, particularly the Ramazan and the Muharram, are among the 
most notable features of Punjabi life. Their religious teachers 
{inaidvies and others) are trained in the Koran and ready to defend its 
doctrines against all aggressors. Their monastic and begging fakirs 
(of whom there are said to be seventy-two different societies in the 
Moslem world) furnish an army of fanatical and unscrupulous zealots, 
prepared to advance their cause, secretly and openly, even by fraud 
and bloodshed. Their desire to get new converts is equalled only by 
their regret at numerical loss and their hatred of those who abandon 
their faith, or make apostates of their followers. And, notwithstand- 
ing the modifying and mollifying influences of daily intercourse, be- 
tween them and other sects, especially between them and Hindus, a 
slumbering, implacable 
enmity exists, which re- 
quires only a suitable 
occasion to reveal its 
deadly bitterness. 

It must not be sup- 
posed, however, that 
skepticism and infidelity 
have not made inroads 
upon the Muhammadan 
or the Hindu ranks. As 
the result of secular edu- 
cation and the reading 
of anti-Christian En- 
glish books, many pupils 
have lost faith in their 
ancestral religion, with- 
out becoming Christians, and are tossed upon the sea of doubt or agnos- 
ticism. True only 289 report themselves as such in the census, and 
perhaps most of these are Europeans; but many others, while nomi- 
nally attached to the old systems, are really infidels. 

Besides the divisions described, another remains, deriving its chief 
importance to us from the fact that hitherto it has furnished the great- 
est number of Christian converts. This is what is usually called the 
low-caste or outcaste people, and sometimes the " depressed classes." 
In census statistics they get the title of Chuhras (sweepers, scavengers), 
Megs (weavers), Mochies (shoemakers), Chamars (tanners and work- 




ATTITUDES OF MOSLEMS IN PRAYER. 



118 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

ers in leather), Doms (handlers of carcases), Teli (oilmen), Sansies 
(gypsies), and so on, being reckoned as castes under these names, al- 
though outside of the pale of real Hinduism. It is probable that they 
represent what is left of the aborigines of the country, reinforced from 
time to time by the addition of persons who, for some reason, lost caste 
and were excluded from the so-called higher classes. 

These people hold a degraded position in the eyes of both Mussal- 
mans and Hindus and are almost destitute of social, political and legal 
rights. And it must be admitted that they are generally of darker 
color, weaker intellect and less energetic nature than those who despise 
them. This is especially true of the Chuhras, who remove night soil, 
eat carrion aud the leavings of the people, and, in villages, occupy a 
relation to farmers somewhat similar to that of serfs. 

Religiously considered, the mass of these people cling more or less 
to one or another of the great faiths of the country, without being fully 
admitted to their communion. About three- fourths are thus attached 
to Hinduism, three-sixteenths to Muhammadanism and one-sixteenth 
to Sikhism. But remnants of a peculiar and perhaps primitive faith 
are found among the majority of low-caste people, and in many cases 
this is the predominant element of their religious belief. The Chamars, 
for instance, do not believe in transmigration of souls, but think that 
the good go direct to heaven and the bad to hell. The Sansies vener- 
ate a mythical teacher {guru) named Sans Mai, whom they hold to be 
the founder of their sect. The Chuhras worship " one supreme deity, 
without form or habitation, and believe that the good go to heaven as 
soon as they die, while the bad pass into punishment, but for a while 
only. They worship and make offerings of fowls and the like at a 
small earthen shrine with a flag above it, which is dedicated to Lai 
Beg or Bala Shah, the high priest of the caste. They also invariably 
bury their dead and that mouth downward " * — for fear that the dis- 
embodied spirit might become a troublesome ghost. 

One curious semi-idolatrous custom of the Chuhras is noticed by 
almost every one who has lived any time in the Punjab. It is that of 
Gugga gana, 'or singing Gugga. Its origin and character are thus de- 
scribed : f "It seems that once upon a time there was a king who had 
three sons. One of these sons, named Gugga, killed his two brothers, 

*Ibbetson. 

fBy the Rev. C. B. Newton, D. D., in the "Lodiana Mission Report" for 1893, 
pp. 18, 19. 



LOW-CASTES AND CHRISTIANS ii§ 

and when reproached by his mother for this very unfraternal proceed- 
ing committed suicide in a pet by riding into a quicksand which 
swallowed up prince and horse. It is a custom with the Chuhras to 
celebrate his death by setting up a pole once a year with a flag on it 
and singing songs in his praise. The higher castes in the villages 
assemble around the flag-staff, listen to the music and present offerings 
of money and grain, which the singers appropriate." 

Notwithstanding these superstitious observances, Mr. Denzil Ibbet- 
son, a member of the India civil service and a close observer with large 
opportunities for information, declares that the doctrine of the religion 
of the Chuhras "resembles Christianity more nearly than anything 
else we have in India." 

In the case of many (perhaps most) of these people, however, it 
might be properly said that they have no religion whatever. Their 
minds present a blank upon this subject, or perhaps I should say as 
nearly a blank as those of any tribe on earth. 

Heretofore low-caste persons have numbered one-eighth of the pop- 
ulation of the Punjab ; but, on account of their present restlessness 
and upward aspirations, they are rapidly losing many of their peculiar 
traits — social, industrial and religious — and becoming assimilated to, 
or absorbed by, the higher classes. 

Of nominal Christians in the Punjab little need be said, as they are 
few in number. They comprise Europeans, Eurasians and Natives.* 

Of Europeans we have civil and military officers, soldiers, mission- 
aries, railway employees, tea planters, business men and laborers of 
every grade. Those who were outside of the civil and military service 
in 1891 number 6,145, of whom 2,887 were females. With some ex- 
ceptions the condition of this class is not promising. Efforts indeed, 
have been made to better the circumstances and prospects of what is 
sometimes called the "British Colony in India." But with wages so 
low, native competition so general and persistent, and the difference 
between foreign and native styles of living so great, such efforts appear 
to be almost hopeless. Nor are the religious conditions under which 
they live any more promising. Chaplains often neglect them ; church 

*The census of 1891 gives the following numbers: 

1. Total Christians, including Europeans and Roman Catholics, 57,1 25 

2. Protestant Native Christians, 20,729 

3. Proportion of all Christians to population, .002 

4. Proportion of Protestant Native Christians to population, .0008 



120 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

people often repel, rather than attract, them ; native Christians have 
no influence over them ; missionaries often consider them beyond the 
limits of their peculiar commission. Woe to the white people (es- 
pecially those of education and refinement) who on account of pecu- 
niary misfortunes are compelled to remain and bring up their families 
in that country ! To such it is a poverty-stricken land and a moral 
pest house. 

Of Eurasians, that is, persons of mixed European and Asiatic blood, 
there were 2191 in the Punjab at the time when the last census was 
taken. These, while they have the rights, labor also under many of 
the disadvantages, of their whiter brethren, and find it hard to com- 
pete with pure natives in the race for a decent livelihood, social ad- 
vancement and more elevated character. 

Of native Christians, only a chance one is found not directly con- 
nected, either as worker or member, with some missionary movement ; 
that is, very few are nominally Christian and yet so far outside the pale 
of Protestant communion that, like members of a corrupt Christian 
sect, they form the subjects of special missionary effort. 

A close observer can usually distinguish all the various classes of 
Punjabi people which have been described, by their dress, their habits, 
their names and their general appearance. The Sikh costume and 
other peculiarities have already been mentioned. Hindu men wear 
an undipped mustache, a crown scalplock of hair, closely drawn cover- 
ing for their limbs, the high-caste thread (if among the " twice born "), 
upper garments parted on the right side or thrown over the left 
shoulder, and sometimes a tika (devotional sign) upon their foreheads, 
made with red, yellow and white pigment, which varies according to 
the character of their favorite god.* They also clean their teeth with 
the finger next the little one. Muhammadans wear a clipped mustache, 
clothing of more sombre tints, garments parted on the left side or 
thrown over the right shoulder, more flowing apparel below the hips, 
and sometimes a side scalplock of hair, or hair dyed red in imitation of 
Muhammad's; and, in cleaning their teeth, they use the forefinger. 
Parsees and cultured Christians, as well as Eurasians, dress more like 
Europeans ; but the first mentioned often wear a peculiar hat which is 
shown in a preceding picture. Hindus have names drawn from the 

* The mark of the Vaishnavas consists of two perpendicular strokes meeting below 
in a curve, denoting the footprints of Vishnu ; that of Saivas consists of three hori- 
zontal lines, made with white or gray ashes. 



CLASSES COMPARED 121 

Sanskrit tongue and Hindu mythology ; Moslems, from the iVrabic 
tongue and in memory of ancient Muhammadan worthies ; while native 
Christians frequently abandon names, reflecting their old faith, and 
assume those that are Biblical or European. Hindu women incline 
more to the use of skirts than Muhammadan women ; but in the Pun- 
jab both classes frequently wear a loose kind of drawers, called pae- 
jamas. The burka (a long, bag-like, heavy, white veil covering the 
whole person,) is used by both Hindu and Muhammadan ladies of a 
certain grade when they appear in public* 

It has already been noted that nearly three-fourths of the people 
within our special field, say seventy-one per cent., are Muhamma- 
dans proper. Perhaps twenty per cent, are Hindus proper; four per 
cent. Sikhs ; four per cent, low-caste ; and the remainder (one per 
cent.) of other religions. The Muhammadans are everywhere more 
numerous than the Hindus ; but they predominate most largely in our 
northwestern districts. They are almost all, too, of the Sunni, or 
orthodox sect. A few Shiahs are found here and there, particularly in 
Jhang and Jhelum ; and in the last-named District we meet with Wa- 
habies also. Sikhs are common in Gurdaspur, Sialkot and especially 
Gujranwala, which is one of their historical centers. These three 
Districts also contain most of our low-caste population. 

The comparative standing of the different religious communities in 
point of education can be approximately inferred from the number of 
candidates reported in the Punjab University examinations of March, 
1891. Of a total of 1 1 75 persons, making their appearance in these 
examinations, 737 were Hindus; 310 Muhammadans; 104 Sikhs; 
and 24 Christians — that is, about one to every 45,000 Muhammadans; 
one to every 14,500 Sikhs; one to every 13,000 Hindus; and one to 
every 1500 or 1600 Christians. The returns from Madras (for 1890- 
91) indicate that in the eleven first and second-grade mission colleges 
of the Presidency there were 1242 students enrolled, of whom 6 were 
Europeans; 137 Christians ; 13 Muhammadans; 776Brahmans; 304 
non-Brahman Hindus ; and 6 others — while the whole population of the 
Presidency ranged as follows: 3.6 per cent. Brahmans ; 2.2 per cent. 
Christians; 87.8 per cent. Hindus; and 6.4 per cent. Muhammadans; 
that is, the comparative eagerness of these various classes to secure 
higher education may be represented by the following numbers : 
Brahmans 215 ; non-Brahman Hindus 3.5 ; Christians 65 ; Muhamma- 
* See pp. 65, 66 and 109. 



122 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

dans 2 ; others 30. In schools of all grades in India there were, ac- 
cording to the census of 1891, 3,682,707 pupils; of whom 2,512,916 
were Hindus; 836,389 Muhammadans; 25,568 Europeans and Eura- 
sians ; 86,314 Native Christians ; and 221,520 miscellaneous. That is, 
one in every 82 of the Hindus, one in every 68 of the Muhammadans, 
one in every 20 of the Christians, and one in every 90 of other classes 
were attending school. In higher education, therefore, we find Brah- 
mans taking the lead by a long distance, and Christians well advanced ; 
while Muhammadans take the lowest place. In lower education 
Christians stand first ; Muhammadans next ; Hindus next, and all 
others, taken together, last. The Christians reported of course em- 
brace all classes of that name, Roman Catholics and Syrians as well as 
Protestants. 

As to morals and manners Punjabies exhibit the characteristics which 
might be expected from the religion that they profess and the circum- 
stances in which they have been placed. 

Some good traits may be observed. 

Hindus have been called " the cleanest people in the world." They 
bathe every day. It is a part of their religion. Muhammadans also 
wash before meals and prayers. And even coolies keep their teeth 
beautifully white by frequent cleansing. But the water in bathing 
tanks is often foul, and as for the clothing of the majority of the 
people, it is generally in a soiled, and sometimes in a filthy, condition. 

Up to the present time natives of India are generally a temperate 
people. The use of strong drink is forbidden both by the Koran of 
the Mussalmans and the caste rules of Hinduism. And very seldom 
do we find men drunk — far less frequently than in so-called Christian 
countries. Sometimes evidence of the use of opium, bhang or ganga 
(liquors from the hemp plant), or arq (distilled spirits) is observed; 
but the frequent use of intoxicants as a beverage is a western vice, 
brought in by Europeans, and as yet has advanced beyond the ranks 
of its importers only to a very limited (although constantly increasing) 
extent. Even the use of tobacco is discarded by the Sikhs and 
others. 

The Punjabies are also a very polite people — polite according to 
their notions of politeness. True, their inquisitiveness and ignorance 
of English manners often lead them to say and do things contrary to 
our notions of good taste. But in their own way they are respectful 
to equals and superiors and observant of those forms of urbanity which 



GOOD TRAITS OF THE PUNJAB IE S 12B 

in the East are recognized as becoming. This leads them, as a rule, 
to reverence the aged of either sex and submit to their authority. 

More than this, they are on the whole a mild and gentle people — ■ 
gentle even to the lower animals. Hindus get this trait partly from 
their religious beliefs and partly from their absorption of Buddhistic 
sentiments. But even Muhammadans (if we except Pathans and 
border tribes) have acquired something of the same spirit from their 
association with the Hindus. True, this characteristic is not universal, 
or uniformly exercised, and in times of fanatical uprising disappears 
altogether; but, compared with the peculiarities of other peoples, it 
.may be termed a national characteristic. 

The Punjabies are also an industrious and frugal race. Although 
Orientals are generally poor, they cannot properly be called lazy ; 
much less can they be charged with a spirit of prodigality. They 
work as vigorously as the climate of their country justifies them in 
doing, and as constantly as their opportunities allow ; while those 
who have more money than is required to get the necessaries of life 
are as much inclined to parsimony as to the opposite extreme. 

In addition to this Hindus proper are at present tolerant of other 
religions, while Muhammadans refrain from oppressing the poor by 
excessive usury, or indeed by any usury at all. The Koran forbids it. 

Another excellence, which springs from their patriarchal mode of 
living, is the provision thus made by Punjabies for the support of the 
unemployed and the destitute, without making them a public charge. 
As long as any member of a household has money he shares it with his 
companions through the common treasury. There are no poorhouses 
in India. And even ordinary beggars fare about as well as other 
people — some of them, indeed, better than the average. To those 
who ask alms in the name of God it is considered a duty to give ; and 
a curse is feared in case of refusal. 

But the other side of the picture is a very dark one. 

One of the vernacular papers, the Ondh Akhbar, in giving a view of 
the character of Anglo-Indians (Europeans), incidentally refers in the 
way of contrast to some of the minor sins of its countrymen. As 
quoted in the Civil and Military Gazette of Lahore, it says : 

"The European is always a strict adherent to his promise — a quality 
the entire absence of which among our countrymen is bitterly de- 
plored. As a rule, the Indians always reckon their neighbor's smart- 
ness of faculty by the amount of deception and unfaithfulness he 



124 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

displays towards his friends and confederates, and the more deceptive 
a man, the more he is admired and esteemed by our countrymen, 
which is quite contrary to the rules of humanity. Again, Europeans 
never resort to oaths in the course of conversation, while our country- 
men, whether Hindu or Muhammadan, scarcely ever speak a word 
without taking a long oath, lest they should be disbelieved by their 
hearers. The custom of impressing the veracity of your words by 
means of oaths is, to say the least of it, despicable. Again, Europeans 
are very punctual, while there is an extreme lack of punctuality 
among our countrymen. Again, Europeans never go complaining 
of their friends and acquaintances, as the Indians do. In the event 
of a misunderstanding between friends, the European will never make 
it a matter of complaint or scandal, and will never go expounding his 
grievances before all with whom he comes in contact. The Indians, 
on the contrary, love to tell tales about their friends behind their back. 
They seldom or never have the courage to tell a person his faults to his 
face, but will run the unfortunate man to earth before all his friends 
in his absence. In his presence, however, they will appear very 
pleasing and even go to the extent of flattering him. Again, Euro- 
peans are never known to be dilatory in the performance of their 
duties, while our Indian brothers seldom think of their duty, and, 
when they do think of it, it is conveniently forgotten, or put off to the 
last moment." 

Heartily can we wish, with the C. cV M. Gazette, that " one-half of 
the above, so far as it relates to Europeans, was as universally true, as 
the writer evidently believes." Certainly Anglo-Indian society is not 
what it should be, and by its character argues weakly in favor of 
Christianity. Besides occasional instances of bribery, dishonesty, in- 
justice and political corruption, there is a vast amount of pride, im- 
morality, unseemly strife, intemperance and dishonorable ambition 
among English officials and their families ; and, as for British soldiers, 
the less said about their virtue and their freedom from profanity the 
better. Indeed, only a short time ago, a writer in the St. Stephen'' s 
Review, as quoted by the same Lahore paper, said that, " in point of 
morals, Anglo-Indian society is worse than any civilized nation. It is 
utterly corrupt. Good men and true women are the exception and 
not the rule." And such is the impression which one gets from read- 
ing Rudyard Kipling's stories. 

No doubt Rudyard Kipling and the St. Stephen's Review make 




A Fakir. 
Sweeper Children. 



TYPES OF Pl\\ T JABIES. 

A Frequent Sight. 

Musicians. 
A Vender of Sweets. 



Lowly People. 
A Bihishti. 



MORALS OF THE PEOPLE 125 

highly exaggerated representations of the wickedness of Anglo-Indian 
society. But, granting the worst that can be properly said in regard 
to it, there is as little doubt that the Oudh Akhbar was right in con- 
trasting it favorably with the morals of Hindu and Muhammadan so- 
ciety. 

That paper did well to speak of the deception and the falsehood of 
native East Indians, and their unfaithfulness to promises. Violation 
of the ninth commandment is well nigh universal. The atmosphere 
of the whole country is full of deceit. We find it among household 
servants, in the bazar, in the civil courts, in the palaces of native 
princes. It is said that one-half the prisoners of the jails are held in 
duress through false charges. For a few annas almost any amount of 
untruthful testimony can be purchased. No one takes any account of 
lying. 

And just as much can be affirmed of their violation of the seventh 
commandment. Virtue is considered of little worth by either men or 
women. Only when its loss affects a parent's prospects, or a hus- 
band's rights, does it seem to have any value ; and often not then. 
And this state of feeling is grounded in, and to a large extent sanc- 
tioned by, the religions of the country. Not only were Muhammad 
and his most renowned successors polygamists, and one of the most 
popular Hindu gods licentious, but polyandry is legalized, by Hindu- 
ism, and polygamy by both faiths. Hinduism also recognizes eight 
different kinds of marriage, some of which are no better than free 
love, condemns even child widows to perpetual celibacy, approves of 
sacred prostitution, and sanctions the worship of the sakti principle, 
with all its disgusting orgies; while Muhammadanism legalizes concu- 
binage, gives to men almost unlimited freedom of divorce, and prac- 
tically retains in fair standing those who are professional strumpets. 
No wonder therefore that great laxity of morals prevails everywhere, 
and that Paul's arraignment of heathenism, in Rom. i : 21-32, proves 
to be literally true in modern India. 

Akin to this trait is the low estimate placed upon woman in that 
country, and the degraded and subordinate position in which she is 
found. 

Although not excluded from the hope of Paradise, and often treated 
with honor and affection, Muhammadan women are, by their law, so 
restricted in their religious and social privileges, so subject to the arbi- 
trary will of their husbands or fathers, and so deprived of the power 



126 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



of redress, as to make their condition in many cases little better than 
that of slaves. 

The spirit and the teachings of Hinduism, too, are equally degrad- 
ing. Even in the evolution of the universe, according to Hindu 
philosophy, there is a subordination of the female (Prakriti) to the 
male (Purusha) principle ; and in the evolution of salvation, as a 
Hindu understands it, the inferiority of the female sex is made to stand 
out still more prominently. Indeed, that sex is considered an obsta- 
cle, rather than an aid to perfection. As heaven is supposed to be the 
cessation of all desire, so woman, more than almost anything else, is 

supposed to stand in the way of its 
realization. She is the siren who 
lures to sin and keeps from nirvana 
— " the very gateway of hell." * 
A Hindu, on being questioned once 
as to matters in which all Hindus 
were agreed, is said to have men- 
tioned two — the sacredness of the 
cow and the evil of woman. Prac- 
tically, indeed, these theories and 
legal principles, like those of Mu- 
hammadans, are often thwarted in 
their effects by natural affection 
and the workings of conscience — 
as well as by woman's own tact, 
tongue and will. But, granting all 
this, there is a vast difference be- 
tween the rights, privileges and influence of the female sex in India 
and in gospel lands. 

Intolerance and bitter persecution of religious converts is another 
characteristic of the people of India. This, of course, would not be 
thought strange in the case of Moslems, because their faith and his- 
tory are the very embodiment of this principle. But, tolerant of 
other religions as Hindus are, they also are as bitter in their feelings 
as Muhammadans can be toward persons who seek to proselyte their 
people, and especially toward those of their brethren who abandon 
their faith, break caste and become adherents of a non-Hindu sect. 
Every device that ingenuity can contrive is employed to prevent such 

* Article in Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. IX, p. 13. 




GANESH, THE GOD OF WISDOM. 



THEFT AND MURDER 127 

a result, or to punish the offender who has eluded their efforts and 
asserted his freedom — persecution being carried, if possible, to the 
point of murder. Were it not for the strong arm of the English Gov- 
ernment this characteristic would be more marked than it is now. 

Violation of property rights is also a common thing in India, and 
that, too, notwithstanding the vigilance of the police. Several tribes, 
such as the Sansies, are, by their caste profession, thieves, and have to 
be put under restriction by government authority. Frequently, too. we 
hear of the pillaging, robbery and murder done by dakoits, who, in 
organized bands, swoop down on a village and in a few minutes ac- 
complish all the destruction of a raiding party in time of war. Some- 
times burglars enter a tent, or break through the walls of a house, and 
carry off everything of value which they can find. Confidence games 
are also played with success, bribes taken (imposed even) by many na- 
tive officials, and gambling pursued with unrelenting cruelty. 

But the chief difference between Indian and American or European 
society in this matter is in the general propensity for petty thieving and 
over-reaching. Reference has already been made to this trait in the 
case of servants. But servants are not the only ones of whom it is 
characteristic. All classes, high and low, are permeated with the spirit. 
It is considered a small fault for a man to keep back dues, or appro- 
priate articles, when he can do so without being detected, or if de- 
tected, without being prosecuted and punished. Perfect honesty is the 
exception, not the rule. And then, in the case of money lenders and 
others, we have examples of persons (and they are numerous) who 
under forms of law grind the faces of the poor, and subject them to 
deep financial distress. One of the greatest curses in India is the 
Hindu broker. 

Nor even among the "mild Hindus" is there as much regard for 
human life as in Christian countries. True, human sacrifices, widow- 
burning and professional, caste-approved murders, like those of the 
Thugs, have almost all ceased. But this is so chiefly because they have 
been suppressed by the strong arm of British authority — the same 
Power which also forbids the possession of firearms to natives without 
license, and thus greatly diminishes the amount of ordinary bloodshed 
which might otherwise be expected. But, in spite of police control 
and imperial law, there are many murders committed which come to 
light ; while the number of lives taken secretly by exposure, poison and 
otherwise (if fully known) would no doubt be appalling. 



128 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



This is particularly true of the treatment of helpless people, especially 
women, and female infants — proof of which is to be found in the smaller 
reported birth-rate, and the greater yearly mortality, of females than 
of males, as well as in the large disproportion existing between the two 
sexes in the enumeration of the census. Sometimes towns report 
fewer births of female infants until the matter is brought to the atten- 
tion of the magistrates and they are threatened with a fine, when — as 
is said to have lately been the case with a Gurdaspur village — the re- 
ports experience a violent and amusing change, even exhibiting the 
very opposite extreme. During 1886 the infant death rate of females 
in the Jalandhar District was 319 per 1000 against 274 per 1000 in 
males. According to the census of 1891, there were 1666 more males 
than females in the city of Jhelum, where there was a total population 
of only 9688; and in Lahore less than 41^ per cent, belonged to the 
weaker sex. 

For both religious and moral reasons, therefore, the need of Chris- 
tian work in our field must be evident to all. Men may talk about 
hope of salvation for the heathen without missionary effort, but where 
can we find a man among them who, without Christian faith, even in 
the eyes of charity, exhibits that spirit and character (holiness) which 
the Bible tells us is necessary to eternal life. No doubt the testimony 
of every evangelical laborer would be, "I never saw one." And then 
what shall we say of the temporal benefits of Christian labor among 
these people? Even if godliness were profitable only for " the life 
that now is " — if our only hope were to elevate them in the scale of 
civilization, fit them for self-government and make them more intelli- 
gent, moral and congenial companions — this labor would not be in 
vain. 




SACRED CATTLE. 




CHAPTER XIII 
ORGANIZATION FOR WORK 

Missionaries not Independent— Church Courts and Missionary Societies— The 
Missionary Association, its History, Constitution, Powers and Methods— The Mis- 
sionary's Individual Authority— His Relation to Native Agents. 

|OME persons, perhaps, imagine that missionaries laboring 
in foreign lands carry on their work separately and inde- 
pendently of one - another— disseminating gospel truth 
wherever and however they may each think best. But 
such is not the case. There are very few perfectly independent mis- 
sionaries. As a rule they are under authority and must regulate their 
movements according to the appointment and the direction of some 
higher power. What this power is differs in different Missions and at 
different periods of the same Mission, depending as it does upon char- 
acteristics of church polity, progressive development and orders from 
the home church. 

In our own Punjab field, as in all Presbyterian Missions, the ruling 
power is an association of some kind— either a church court or a soci- 
ety organized for the purpose under a special law. 

Of church courts— or administrative bodies, as they might be called 
9 (129) 



130 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

—we have Sessions, Presbyteries and a Synod* — that is, a gradation of 
ecclesiastical organizations, according to our Presbyterial system. 

Sessions are composed of elders and ministers, chosen by the congre- 
gations, ordained by the imposition of hands and regularly installed 
in their office, according to an established law, which is contained in 
our "Book of Government." Higher courts, according to the same 
law, consist of elders (delegated by the Sessions) and ordained minis- 
ters ; and in all these courts, as well as Sessions, no distinction is made 
on account of color, caste or place of birth. 

Ordained foreign missionaries are required by our church to join 
Mission Presbyteries and take part in their deliberations ; while un or- 
dained missionaries are expected to join congregations in the field as 
private members, not only in order that they may retain a name and a 
place in the visible church, have a right to sacramental privileges and 
grow in every grace, but also in order that they may set before native 
Christians an example of subordination to God's appointed ordi- 
nances, secure their sympathy by hearty co-operation and stimulate 
them to every good work. 

Church courts have not only the power of receiving church mem- 
bers, administering the sacraments, exercising discipline, organizing 
congregations and ordaining ecclesiastical officers, but also the power 
of carrying on Christian work within their own territorial bounds, as 
far as their means and opportunities will justify ; and this power has 
been exercised by those that are organized in our India field. Ses- 
sions there have employed special agents to co-operate with the pastor 
and work among the unconverted, and have carried on almost every 
species of missionary labor. Presbytery, too, has had jurisdiction over 
every part of our field, has established new Mission Districts, appointed 
mission superintendents, ordained men {sine titidd) for purely evangel- 
istic work, established Christian schools and published religious litera- 
ture. Indeed, through an organized system of Committees, established 
as early as the month of January, 1884, she possessed machinery suffi- 
cient to execute every form of ecclesiastical or missionary enterprise; 
and, though some of the Committees then appointed, for various rea- 
sons, died out, others remained as active instrumentalities down to the 
time of the formation of the Synod. 

* This was constituted at Sialkot, November 7, 1893, in obedience to the direction 
given by the General Assembly in May preceding. It is called the Synod of the 
Punjab. 



MISSIONARY SOCIETIES IN INDIA 131 

Unlike the Mission, too, it should be remarked, these ecclesiastical 
courts are not placed in subordination to the Board of Foreign Mis- 
sions, but have direct connection, through their highest body, with the 
General Assembly at home, by which alone their acts can be reviewed. 

Of missionary societies in the field, we have, first, Women's Mission- 
ary Associations, local and Presbyterial, and secondly, an association 
called "The Mission," or more definitely and legally, "The Sialkot 
Mission " — taking its distinctive name from the first station occupied, 
just as the Ludhiana Mission of the American Presbyterian Church 
owes its name to the city where they first began work. 

Our Women's Missionary Societies are of recent origin and resemble 
somewhat organizations of the same name at home. Indeed, they 
form a part of that extensive system of Ladies' Missionary Associa- 
tions, which, following the trend of the times, has developed so rapidly 
and wonderfully in our American Church during the past few years. 
The first congregational W. M. S. organized was that of Gurdaspur, 
which originated in the early eighties. Four others have been formed 
since that time. The Presbyterial Association was founded and held 
its first meeting at Gurdaspur, January 15, 1891.* These bodies, 
however, have as yet exercised little authority of any kind, their work 
hitherto being confined almost entirely to that of stimulus and the ad- 
vancement of Christian fellowship. 

Far different is it with that association which we call The Mission. 
This was organized almost at the beginning of our work — just as soon, 
indeed, as the first minister was reinforced by ministerial associates. 
At the outset it consisted of only foreign male missionaries ; after the 
ordination of Messrs. Swift and Scott, which took place January 7, 
1859, native ordained ministers also were admitted to membership ; a 
few years subsequently the latter were excluded ; and finally an enlarge- 
ment took place so as to embrace lady foreign missionaries. 

The last change took place in 1890 — virtually in January, when by 
a vote of the Mission they were allowed to participate in its proceed- 
ings, and legally in May, when the General Assembly changed the 
Manual so as to correspond with the Mission's action. Two limita- 
tions, however, may be observed in regard to the admission of 
women: — first, as to individuals; and secondly, as to jurisdiction. 
The General Assembly's act is so worded, or at least so interpreted, 

* As a Synod has been organized, some changes in this Association will probably 
occur. 



132 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

as to exclude nearly all married lady missionaries; and even those 
ladies, married or unmarried, who are admitted to membership cannot 
advise and vote on any matters except those which affect their own 
work. The latter limitation practically amounts to little, since almost 
all action touches the ladies' work more or less closely ; nor is the 
former complained of by the parties affected. Some, of other 
Missions, have doubted the propriety of admitting any women to 
membership in the ruling Council, which carries on mission work. 
But since the principle has been admitted by our church, it is hoped 
that, under the operation of a liberal spirit, all distinctions will soon 
cease, whether they relate to persons or measures. 

Reference has been made to the Manual. This contains the Con- 
stitution of the Mission, as well as many other matters affecting the 
duties and the rights of foreign missionaries. It is sometimes called 
the Manual of the Board of Foreign Missions, because it is usually 
prepared and proposed by that Board ; but it has no authority without 
the approval of the General Assembly, and hence might more properly 
be termed the Manual of the General Assembly, relating to foreign 
missions, especially since its regulations are as binding on the Board 
as on the Mission. 

According to this Manual all Mission action must be submitted to 
the Board for its approval, or disapproval ; and the latter has the veto 
power. Happily the Board seldom interferes with the details of our 
missionary work and in this respect diverges greatly from the harassing 
policy pursued by some other Home Committees (especially those of 
Scotch and British Churches) which retain as much power as possible 
in their own hands. So seldom, indeed, does our Board express its 
disapprobation of the Mission's course that action taken by the latter 
on almost all subjects has virtually become final, and is carried out, as 
such, without waiting for the former's decision.* 

Of course there are exceptions, just as there should be. One of these 
is in regard to estimates. Although the Mission knows better what 
money it needs to carry on its work efficiently, the Board knows better 
how much it can safely be responsible for, and hence must exercise the 
right of saying what it can furnish ; although even in this matter the 

* The Corresponding Secretary of our Board from its organization, June 3, 1859, to 
his death, which occurred August 21, 1893, was tne R- ev - J- B. Dales, D. D., LL. D., 
and on account of his long, active and sympathetic services, it is only proper that we 
give his portrait. 



POWERS OF THE MISSION 



133 



General Assembly knows better than either party what the church can 
give, and should therefore have the final decision. 

The Commissioners of the Free Church of Scotland, who visited 
India in the winter of 1889-90, thought that the regulation of bound- 
aries in mission fields ought also to be largely in the hands of the 
Home Committee, because it would be less likely to act from party 
spirit and personal prejudice than persons who are in the field ; and 
certainly no marked increase of mission territory should be perma- 
nently decided upon without the sanction of those who have as much 
to do with the support of the 
work as have the members of the 
Board at home. 

And more confidently still, no 
doubt, may we affirm that the 
fundamental constitution of the 
Mission and the ultimate deter- 
mination of the questions, who 
shall be its members and what 
shall be its powers, ought to be 
largely in the hands of the home 
church ; for in such matters, if 
in anything, party spirit, personal 
ambition, established custom and 
racial prejudice are likely to 
affect the judgment of those who 
already possess, as well as those 
who earnestly want, power. Be- 
sides, where the rival of the 
Mission for power is an eccle- 
siastical court — such as the Synod, or the Presbytery — there is only one 
body exercising authority over both parties, and hence in a position to 
mediate properly between them, and that is the General Assembly. 
Even the Foreign Board will be always inclined to favor that organi- 
zation with which alone it is officially connected — namely, the Mis- 
sion. 

Our Mission resembles other deliberative bodies in the character of 
its officers and in its methods of transacting business. It has a regu- 
lar Annual Meeting (formerly in January, now in October,) and can 




DR. DALES. 



134 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

meet at other times, either on adjournment, or at the special call of 
its presiding officer. It can take action also by circular, and in this 
respect differs from Associations at home. A Circular, according to 
the law adopted in January, 1885, is really a written motion, signed 
by the mover and seconder and passed around, through the mail or 
otherwise, by the President, for the votes of the different members. 
This enables the Mission to transact urgent business without the trou- 
ble and expense of a formal meeting, and in this point of view is al- 
most a necessity. But it has its disadvantages. Amendments cannot 
be satisfactorily offered, and the light which springs from discussion is 
largely absent ; while, in announcing his decision as to the result, the 
President may officially make remarks which virtually modify the 
character of the action. Besides, in some Missions it has been em- 
ployed occasionally as a means of undoing business previously tran- 
sacted with great deliberation at a regular meeting. 

The powers of the Mission are not clearly defined in our Manual. 
It is said to exist "for the management of the finances and general 
directing and supervising of the mission work," while matters strictly 
" ecclesiastical " are supposed not to come within its province. Great 
opportunity for contraction, or expansion, is therefore given ; and, as 
a matter of fact, the character of the distribution of powers made be- 
tween the Mission and our ecclesiastical bodies has not been uniform, 
but has varied with the convictions, impulses and aggressive tendencies 
of their respective members. Generally it has been asserted by mis- 
sionaries that the management of foreign funds and foreign mission- 
aries comes under the sole direction of the Mission ; while the control 
of money raised by natives and of employees supported by this money, 
comes within the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical bodies. It is also con- 
ceded that the latter authorities alone have the right to ordain minis- 
ters and elders, establish regular pastoral connections, organize 
churches, and manage the Theological Seminary. But these limita- 
tions have not been strictly adhered to ; while between them is a con- 
siderable area of doubtful (or neutral) territory, in occupying which 
practice has varied. Occasionally, too, for policy's sake, co-operation 
has been sought or exercised, so as to secure harmony of action. For 
instance, Presbytery has been asked to sanction rules governing the 
qualifications and the pay of Mission servants ; while Presbytery has 
taken action confirming ecclesiastical appointments made by the Mis- 




(135) 



136 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

sion and authorizing baptismal acts performed, and church discipline 
exercised, by missionaries or other ministers without the authority of 
a Session. 

It may be remarked, however, that, generally speaking, during the 
earlier half of the period chiefly under review there was a growing dis- 
position to throw as much power as possible into the hands of the 
Presbytery; while during the latter half the tide kept flowing in the 
opposite direction. This change in the usual course of things is one 
of the causes of the memorial sent up by several native ministers to 
the Assembly of 1892, and one of the reasons, put forward by some, 
why a readjustment of the rights and powers of these rival authorities 
should be made. 

Coming down to particulars, we are required to note that the Mis- 
sion, as an organized body, has included among its prerogatives the 
preparation of missionaries for labor ; * their location, their assign- 
ment to special duties, and their change from one place, or work, to 
another ; the approval of estimates, expenditures and accounts ; the es- 
tablishment of rules regulating the wages of employees and limiting 
the outlay of funds in various directions ; the sanction of plans for 
buildings, and the assignment of mission dwellings to particular per- 
sons ; the appointment of committees to perform a special work; the 
direction of official correspondence, intended for publication in the 
church papers; the approval of annual reports ; granting missionaries 
leave to ask the Board for permission to go home on furlough ; the ap- 
peal for more funds and more missionaries ; the establishment of insti- 
tutions for training native agents, and sometimes also the appointment 
of such agents to a particular station or work. 

Our Annual Meetings are busy and interesting occasions, lasting for 
about a week. Every one of the dozen or more sub-treasurers, as well 
as the general treasurer, presents an account of all his receipts and ex- 
penditures, and these reports are individually examined, approved, 
audited and signed, and balance sheets are prepared for transmission 
to the Board.*)" Personal reports of their work during the year are also 
given, either orally or in writing, by missionaries, and a Committee 

* Especially the oversight of their instruction in the vernacular tongues. 

f Since the change of the time of the Annual Meeting to October, much of this 
work is done by a Committee specially appointed for the purpose, which meets at the 
end of the year, so that the accounts of the whole year may be considered and 
closed. 



ANNUAL MEETING'S W 

appointed to compile from them a general report for publication, both 
in India and America. All sorts of business — memorials, appoint- 
ments, appeals, reports of standing committees, amendment of Mission 
rules, approval of estimates, settlement of boundaries, requests of 
neighboring Missions, calls for new missionaries, approval of plans for 
new buildings, purchase of more mission property, assignment of 
houses on the hills, granting leave to go home, and many other matters 
— are duly transacted and in the course of their transaction call forth 
a vast amount of discussion. Conferences are also held for the pur- 
jpose of considering various questions of Mission policy, or stimulating 
spiritual life. And on Sabbaths religious meetings are attended — gen- 
erally in connection with the congregation of the place — and some- 
times the Lord's Supper is dispensed. Always, too, there is a good 
deal of social enjoyment ; since meals are taken at a common board, 
and, during periods of recess, leisure is given to old and young for 
conversation or recreation. 

Until recently, Annual Meetings were held in rotation at the prin- 
cipal stations of the Mission, and the brethren of the station chosen 
(including ladies) were expected to entertain those who came from a 
distance; although tents were often required to provide entertainment 
for all. In January, 1892, however, a general fund was established, 
and a regular assessment instituted, to pay all expenses, and one place 
was selected as the point of annual rendezvous. That place is the 
Christian Training Institute, Sialkot. 

Among the more permanent appointments which missionaries as 
individuals receive directly from the Mission are the superintendence 
of Missions in a particular district, or of the Boarding School, or of 
the Christian Training Institute, or of a hospital, the charge of ze- 
nana work, or Girls' Schools, the training of Christian women, the 
management of High Schools, and the duties of a treasurer — general or 
subordinate. Once appointed, the missionary, as a general thing, is 
left to do his own work with a free hand — subject only to the limita- 
tions of his field and treasury, and the general rules which have been 
adopted in regard to his particular department of labor. Only in the 
management of the Girls' Boarding School, the Christian Training In- 
stitute and the medical work, are there Committees (called Boards) 
established to superintend superintendents and form a responsible 
agency between the individual missionary and the Mission ; nor, as far 
as known, has the success of this exceptional policy in these instances 



138 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

been such as to recommend its adoption in other cases. As it is not 
wise for the Foreign Board to interfere with the Mission in the details 
of its work, so it does not seem wise for the Mission to hamper its 
different members by additional machinery, especially when that ma- 
chinery is largely of a personal character, and composed of only a few 
individuals. 

The missionary, supposed to be free and responsible in his special 
sphere of labor, employs such native helpers, and makes such expendi- 
tures, as in his judgment are necessary to carry on his work with effi- 
ciency. If he is the manager oi a school, his assistants will be mostly 
heathen ; if the superintendent of evangelistic work, they will be en- 
tirely Christian and of good ecclesiastical standing. But whether 
Christian or non-Christian, they are all subject to his control and can 
be retained or dismissed at his pleasure. Once, indeed, a class of men, 
called " Mission servants," were sent hither and thither by the Mission 
itself and were supposed to hold their position independently of the 
will of the missionary under whom they were laboring. But later this 
distinction was lost. Even elders, theological students, licentiates and 
ordained ministers (all but settled pastors) came finally to hold the 
same relation to their work as other employees and could be discharged 
by the superintendent if he saw fit — although, in the case of ministers, 
sanction by the Mission itself was required to make the discharge final. 
In 1893, as one of the results of a memorial sent up to the General 
Assembly, the validity of the old rule was again recognized and native 
ministers acquired anew the rights of " Mission servants," though they 
could still be temporarily suspended by the superintendent in charge.* 

This autocratic method of management prevails largely also in 
some other Missions besides our own, but with minor modifications. 

The simplicity of the policy is evident ; and, were the missionary 
always wise and just, its efficiency and general usefulness would be 
undoubted. The unimpeded will of one man would make every part 
of his machinery as free from defects, and as smooth in its operation, 
as is possible with the materials at his disposal. Native helpers would 
seek above all things to please their sahib, would naturally suppress 
every feeling and every act which might be construed as rebellious or 
antagonistic, and would do his every bidding with alacrity. Unity of 
purpose, harmony of movement, vigor of action and possibly largeness 
of result, would be secured. 

* See Note 2, p. 415. 



THE AUTOCRATIC POLICY 



13d 



Whether this policy, however, even in an ideal condition, accords 
with the genius of Presbyterianism, pays proper respect to the plans, 
official acts and interests of ecclesiastical bodies and ecclesiastical in- 
stitutions, allows every man his full rights, is best fitted to satisfy native 
Christians, elevate their motives, or build up a zealous, self-acting, 
mature, native church, and may be viewed with indifference as a highly 
excellent, although confessedly temporary, form of missionary effort — 
are questions about which men may differ, and of which more may be 
said hereafter. 




VARIETIES OF LOCUSTS. 




CHAPTER XIV 
SECULAR WORK 

Learning the Vernacular Languages — Financial Business — Sub-Treasurers' Work — 
Superintendents' — General Treasurer's — Purchase of Land — Building Houses 
— Repairs — Teaching and Managing Schools — Medical Work — Remedies Dis- 
cussed. 

ONTRARY to the opinion which most people have, a mis- 
sionary's work is often to a considerable extent secular in 
its character — much more so on the average than that of 
a minister in gospel lands; and almost necessarily this is so. 
The acquisition of the foreign languages through which he must 
operate is an intellectual and a physical process which meets him at 
the outset, and absorbs a large share of his time and attention. 
Sounds are to be apprehended and accurately made ; words are to be 
learned ; grammatical rules are to be acquired ; books are to be read ; 
a strange chirography is to be rendered familiar to the eye and the 
hand ; attempts at conversation and public speaking must be made. 
For a time the learner's mind dwells on little else than strange forms, 
sounds and idioms. Like a jingling ditty, which one has chanced to 
repeat too often, or the positions and movements on a chess board to 
him who spends much time at the game of chess, such linguistic pecu- 
liarities present themselves at every turn and shut out more serious 
thoughts. The victim (if such he may be called) is continually trans- 
lating, criticising, practicing. Even the house of God, where truth 
is presented in new and imperfectly apprehended language, and where 
many strange expressions meet him for the first time, is not free from 
the exercise. The newcomer is verily persecuted by the spectre of a 
foreign speech. It even haunts him in his dreams. And this condi- 
tion of things does not disappear altogether very soon, nor very sud- 
denly, in any case. Gradually, of course, it passes away ; but it lin- 
gers longer than some would imagine. 
(140) 



STUDYING THE PEOPLE 



141 



The study of the country, and of the manners, customs, prejudices 
and other peculiarities of the people, is also a process which requires 
much observation, reading and experience of a secular character. It 
is well for missionaries, perhaps, that they have not now the miracu- 
lous gift of tongues — unless, indeed, they possessed with it an equally 
miraculous power of understanding fully the subjects with which they 
have to deal. Many unfortunate mistakes would be made by new mis- 
sionaries if they could begin their missionary efforts at once. A 
knowledge of one's audience is necessary to insure appropriate re- 
marks and judicious evangelism. Even under present conditions the 
foreign laborer is sometimes 
exceedingly unfortunate in his 
statements — to say nothing of 
the frequency with which his 
imprudence is hidden, or nulli- 
fied, by imperfections of speech. 
The preparatory work to be 
performed by a missionary, 
therefore, in the direction just 
indicated, is by no means small. 

And then, after his labors are 
fairly begun, he finds, often to 
his surprise, that spiritual work, 
strictly so-called, is far from 
being all that he is called upon 
to do. 

Financial matters, for in- 
stance, must absorb many hours 
of his time. Even if he is not 
a sub-treasurer, he is necessarily 

required to keep accounts. He must look after the wages of his sub- 
ordinates and approve the monthly bills which they present to the 
treasurer proper. He must also be responsible for incidental expenses, 
and note down every one of the items, large and small, which make 
up his debits and credits — all of which must be handed in every 
month to his superior in the financial department. But, ten chances 
to one, he is the sub-treasurer himself and must "keep" his own 
"books." This involves the transcription of all accounts into a day 
book and a ledger, the balancing of these at the end of the year, to 




OFFICERS AT A TEMPLE. 



142 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

show that his accounts are correct, and that he has not overrun his 
estimates — a work which has often cost missionaries many an anxious 
thought. It involves also, frequent letters to the General Treasurer 
for money — as well as to the bank through which the business is done 
— and the changing of government notes into silver rupees, which is 
sometimes an annoying process. It involves, moreover, the payment 
of employees and others, when their monthly work is done, and 
taking from them receipts as vouchers. All, too, must be submitted 
to the Mission, or the Financial Committee, at its annual meeting, for 
approval or disapproval. 

The amount of labor included in the sub-treasurer's work may be 
inferred from one example, that of the writer as superintendent of the 
Christian Training Institute. His books show expenditures under 
thirteen different heads, and receipts under four heads. The former 
comprised Boarding, Books and Stationery, Clothing, Doctor and 
Medicines, Library, Professors' Salaries, Teachers' Salaries, Servants' 
Wages, Scholarships, Traveling, Repairs, Allowances, and Incidentals; 
the latter, Fees, Private Support, General Treasury, and Miscellaneous. 
Some of these heads, too, suggest a great amount of trouble. Take, 
for example, Boarding. Food and fuel must be purchased every week 
or month, inspected, weighed and put into the store-room, and the 
quantity and cost of each kind noted down ; then it must be meas- 
ured or weighed, as it is daily given out to the cooks; then the pre- 
pared food must be inspected and sampled, from time to time, and 
complaints attended to ; and all through the process a sharp lookout 
must be kept up for pilferers. Take again the item of Clothing. 
Cloth must be purchased at the lowest market price, measured and 
paid for ; tailors must be secured to cut it up and make it into gar- 
ments of various sizes ; these must be assigned to the different boys 
and labeled, and from week to week they must be changed also and 
given to the washerman ; while not in use they must be kept in a 
safe place ; when damaged they must be repaired ; and an account must 
be kept, not only of what each boy receives, but also of what the washer- 
man receives and returns, and of all expenses for manufacture or repair. 
Similar trouble is necessary in reference to shoes, caps and turbans. 
And so we might go over the whole catalogue. One can easily imagine 
how much precious time is consumed in the different departments. 

If a man itinerates he must keep an account also of his traveling 
outfit, his camels, his daily expenditure for fuel, feed and other mat- 



FINANCIAL BUSINESS— BUYING LAND 143 

ters. If he keeps a bookshop, he must, from time to time, take an 
inventory of his stock, note down daily sales, and go (or send) to the 
general depot for new supplies. If he superintends a press he must 
attend to the various matters which are required to keep it in constant 
and efficient operation ; and have his note-book convenient, so that he 
will not forget any outlay. 

In addition to such financial work, the General Treasurer must keep 
up a correspondence with the Treasurer of the Foreign Board in 
America, look after an advantageous disposal of his Bills of Exchange, 
keep a bank account, see that each sub-treasurer gets his monthly 
quota of funds, provide in some way for deficiencies, keep a record of 
all his transactions, report annually to the Mission and the Treasurer 
of the Foreign Board, and make out balance sheets for publication. 

Akin to such labor is the acquisition of land for mission dwellings, 
village schools, hospitals, churches, bookshops and other necessary 
purposes — also the erection of suitable buildings, and their repairs from 
time to time. 

It is generally difficult to acquire real estate in India. Foreigners 
are viewed with distrust ; and missionaries labor under the additional 
disadvantage of being professed agents for the introduction of a new 
religion into the country. Few, therefore, like to sell them land or 
houses. Even a large price will often fail to induce a man to part 
with his possessions. Besides, property belongs to families rather 
than individuals, and the head of a household would not like to sell 
his ancestral estate without the consent of his friends, even if he could 
do so. And more than this, a man's neighbors also have something to say 
in the transaction. According to an ancient Indian law, intended to 
protect a village from the intrusion of strangers, people owning land 
near that which has just been sold, can, within a limited period, claim 
the latter, by themselves paying the sum for which it has changed 
hands, and thus cut out the alien purchaser. This right is called the 
haqq-i-shufa. It often stands in the way of a good title, and hinders 
the efforts of a missionary to get for himself a local habitation. Our 
superintendents have often labored for years to obtain a property foot- 
hold in certain places ; and sometimes they have failed in their object 
after all. 

The erection of buildings is also a very common, as well as a very 
troublesome and tedious, work in a mission field. Probably forty or 
fifty different structures have been put up during the past fourteen 



144 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

years by our own people. Mr. Scott's work in this department ag- 
gregated a value of perhaps 14,000 rupees before his last return to 
America ; Mr. Lytle's still more ; the writer's own about 48,000 ru- 
pees, and that of the whole Mission more than 100,000 rupees. As a 
general thing, too, every part of this kind of work must be superin- 
tended by the missionary himself. First, he must make a plan of the 
building and calculate how much of each kind of material is needed. 
Then perhaps he must manufacture the brick, though in large stations 
this can be found ready-made for sale. When bought, the brick, as it 
is delivered, must be inspected and counted. Lime and other materials, 
for mortar and concrete, must also be prepared or procured, under 
close personal supervision. Logs, too, must be bought ; and in doing 
so several trips, perhaps, must be made to the river depots whither they 
have been floated from the mountain forests. Afterwards these logs 
must be transported to their destination, sawed into lumber by hand, 
and made ready for the carpenter — all under the eye of the sahib. 
Then the bricklayers, carpenters and common laborers must be set to 
work at their various tasks, their roll called morning and evening, their 
work inspected several times a day, mistakes corrected, lazy or ineffi- 
cient employees weeded out, and provision made for every emergency. 
As the business advances, glass, putty, tiles, paint and other articles 
must be purchased, and new men employed to put them in their proper 
places. Weekly pay bills must also be made out and the wages of 
every laborer duly paid. And a strict account must be kept of every 
item of expenditure — to be reported to the Mission when the work is 
done. 

At home, where building is accomplished with such astonishing ra- 
pidity, people may regard this branch of our labor as comparatively 
small. But the circumstances in America are very different ; and we 
may safely assert that such work in India gives a man at least five 
times as much trouble as the same amount does here. The erection of 
a 5000-rupee house virtually constitutes a whole season's labor for the 
missionary in charge. 

Besides building proper also, we must notice the missionary's work 
of making yearly repairs, which, though not so expensive as the former, 
is, in proportion to its cost, still more tedious and annoying. 

Our work of education, too, involves a great deal of secular labor. 
True, the great end of our educational system is religious — the con- 
version of sinners and the edification of saints — and the consideration 



EDUCATIONAL AND MEDICAL WORK 145 

of this feature will come farther on. But the machinery is largely 
secular. Bible instruction, as a rule, cannot occupy more than one 
hour every day. The rest of the school time must be filled up with 
ordinary recitations. Sometimes the missionary may delegate such 
tuition to other persons. But often he does not do so entirely; and 
always, if he wishes to draw large pay for his superintendence from 
government sources, must he spend several hours daily in teaching 
some of the branches of the university curriculum. Religious instruc- 
tion is not taken into account by government inspectors. And then 
the general work of superintendence necessarily involves a great deal 
that is secular. Teachers must be looked after, their work tested, and, 
when vacancies occur, their places filled. Examinations must be held 
from time to time, reports made out, pay rolls inspected, fees, scholar- 
ships, repairs, grants-in-aid and other matters looked after; and some- 
times even the physical training and authorized amusements of the 
school require attention. Only those who have had experience in 
educational work can properly sum up the whole. 

And these remarks apply not merely to the High Schools and other 
institutions, intended more particularly for the conversion of the 
heathen, but also in a large degree to the Christian Training Institute, 
the Girls' Boarding School, and such village schools as are established 
more especially for the edification of Christians. 

Similar remarks may also be made in regard to medical work. 
Every missionary must pay some attention to sanitary matters and the 
art of healing, whether he be principal of a school or superintendent 
of missions. When pupils get sick the instructor would be hardhearted, 
indeed, if he left them altogether to the tender mercies of their igno- 
rant friends; and when the institution is a boarding school he is es- 
pecially responsible. As the minister goes forth on his preaching tour 
also, it is impossible for him to escape the pleadings of the afflicted for 
relief. Invalids often crowd around him ; and his mission as an am- 
bassador for good would suffer greatly if he turned them all away 
without help. Even as he sits at home applications for medicine are 
of daily occurrence. Missionaries, therefore, cannot well escape the 
secular work of distributing medical remedies and healing disease ; and 
frequently this work breaks in pretty seriously upon their time and 
strength. 

And especially is this true of medical missionaries, strictly so called. 
For this particular object they have gone out to the field. Scores of 
10 



146 LIFE AND WORK IX IXDIA 

"cases" are daily brought before them in the dispensary, or the hos- 
pital — besides those that must be treated in the homes of the people. 
It is difficult for a skillful and successful doctor to find an hour's leisure 
for any other business than that of his immediate profession. Direct 
religious instruction must be largely delegated to other hands. 

Connected with even the most purely spiritual departments of mis- 
sionary labor also, is an unusual amount of business which may be 
called unspiritual and secular. The preparations for bazar preaching, 
evangelistic tours, literary production or even pastoral work, and the 
accompaniments which environ them, are largely of the earth, earthy. 
A big setting is required for the precious jewel. 

But, it may be asked, is there no remedy for this state of things ? 
Cannot some substitute be found for religious agents in doing secular 
work? Might not a layman be sent out to the field to assume the 
great burden of keeping accounts and erecting houses ? Might not 
building, at least, be done by a contractor? Cannot natives be em- 
ployed to lessen the task of foreign missionaries? Might they not act 
as sub-treasurers, teachers and medical assistants? Might not the ad- 
vice of Hobab to Moses be followed, aids appointed, and the leaders 
be set free for higher and more spiritual work? 

To some extent this is done, as I have already hinted. Sub-treas- 
urers sometimes get their subordinates to keep special accounts, and 
report from time to time. Almost all the secular teachers in our 
schools are natives, and most of them non- Christian. Assistant over- 
seers and special agents are employed by superintendents in the work 
of building. Apothecaries, nurses and native doctors are hired to help 
a physician-in-charge. Much of the drudgery, and comparatively un- 
important business in every department, is delegated by a missionary 
to persons of smaller pay and lower office. 

But the amount of economy and substitution which can thus be se- 
cured is unavoidably limited. A lay missionary, appointed for purely 
secular work, would not be less expensive than a minister. Nor could 
he assume all the labor of keeping accounts or building houses, to say 
nothing of the superintendence of schools. Necessarily he would be 
dependent on local agents for nine-tenths of the details of his business. 
He could not be everywhere at once. And the local agents employed 
ought not in most cases to be of lower rank than himself. Nor can 
responsible contractors be found in many (if any) of our stations ; and, 
if secured, their work of superintendence would prove more costly than 



IS A REMEDY POSSIBLE? 



147 



that of the missionaries themselves. Schools, too, that are taught 
chiefly by non-Christians, are of little account as religious agencies 
without a strong infusion of missionary zeal and missionary scrutiny. 
Nor can physicians well delegate much of their work in healing the 
sick to others. The responsible head must be present whenever pos- 
sible. 

Besides, even supposing a radical change of policy in this matter prac- 
ticable, the general question comes up whether anything would be 
gained by shifting all secular work from the missionaries to the shoul- 
ders of Christian natives.* Of course they ought to get some training 
in this direction, so as to assume in due time all the responsibilities of 
an independent church. But native helpers of character and capacity 
are comparatively limited, and they are all needed in a spiritual 
sphere. Why subject them to such an extensive worldly influence and 
draw them away almost entirely from the great work of spreading the 
gospel? Would not the native church suffer thereby ? Unfortunate, 
indeed, is it that missionaries are involved in so much that appears 
alien to their calling. But is it not better that they bear the chief 
part of this burden themselves and leave their converts freer for reli- 
gious growth and religious activity ? Will not the cause of Christ 
there be further advanced, in the long run, by this policy than by the 
opposite ? 

*I take it for granted that no one would insist on using non-Christian natives any- 
more than we do. Some think that they ought not to be employed at all, especially 
as teachers. 



CHAPTER XV 




EVANGELISTIC WORK— I 

Aim of Missions — General Principles — Home Religion — Employer's Influence- 
Social Intercourse — Mistakes Corrected — Bazar Preaching — Melas. 

HE great object of Missions, like that of our Lord's advent 
into the world, is to save sinners and thus manifest the 
glory of God — that is, to save sinners from the guilt, the 
power and the consequences of sin, not only in this life, 
but also and especially in that which is to come. Hence, it is not 
primarily to educate, or civilize, or humanize the heathen, although 
such ends are important ; nor is it to secure the adoption of a religion 
which is better than others only in the sense that it is the highest of 
its class, every one of which is measurably useful in accomplishing the 
same end. It assumes that all men are sinners and exposed to God's 
wrath, that Christ is the only Saviour, that the Bible is God's only 
inspired book, that the interests of eternity are immeasurably superior 
to those of time, and that other religions, having no basis in divine 
revelation and failing to save the soul from everlasting death, are 
therefore false — in other words, that besides that of Christ " there is 
none other name under heaven given among men, whereby we must be 
saved." 

But Missions have reference not only to the present generation but 
also to their posterity. Hence missionary work proper keeps both 
classes in view, and includes two things: — first, the offer of salvation 
to living men and the conversion of their souls ; secondly, the train- 
ing of these converts and their organization and development into 
a steadfast, active, self-supporting and self-perpetuating church. 

Without the former, not even a beginning would be made. With- 
out the latter, no permanence could be given to the movement and no 
assurance felt that the work would go on in after time. The first has 
special reference to the present generation, or at most the present age ; 
(148) 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES 149 

the latter looks forward to other generations and subsequent ages. 
The first furnishes the material out of which that self-propagating or- 
ganism is formed which is expected to exhibit perpetual life. Without 
the former, missionaries might better stay at home altogether ; with- 
out the latter, they can never safely abandon the field and return 
finally to their native land. 

The conversion of souls (a missionary's first object) comes inevitably 
as the effect of regeneration. Regeneration is a divine operation ac- 
complished, in the case of responsible persons, by the power of the 
Spirit through the presentation of gospel truth. It is a sudden, radi- 
cal, supernatural change — called in the Scriptures a new birth, or a new 
creation. When this change takes place, the subject naturally turns to 
God and holiness ; he becomes a follower of Christ ; he is converted. 
Usually some kind of preparation precedes this change. God gen- 
erally manifests his regenerating power according to the laws of the 
human mind and of that moral force which we call influence. As a 
rule intellectual belief in fundamental error is removed and a histori- 
cal belief in Christianity created before the crisis comes. Conviction 
of sin also is a common antecedent. Hence, the value of science, re- 
ligious controversy, Christian evidence and the ten commandments 
as factors in missionary work. In like manner, too, there is often a 
kindly feeling cherished towards Christians, and especially Christian 
ministers, by those whom God subsequently calls from death to life. 
Hence, the value of good example and benevolent acts, or institutions, 
in the propagation of our faith. Reference must be had to both the head 
and the heart in trying to convert others. But this preparation may 
be very brief in point of time and very slight in point of character — 
if not, to all human view, entirely wanting in some cases. Certain it 
is, at any rate, that such an influence, however important as a prepara- 
tion, is not the direct means, any more than it is the efficient cause, 
of real conversion. The appointed means through whose instrumen- 
tality divine life flows from the Spirit of God into a soul is some Bible 
truth ; and generally the truth which is most blessed to this end is 
what we call simple and fundamental, the essence of the gospel. 

But plans and contrivances are necessary to secure an audience and 
obtain a favorable hearing for the gospel. Some men are more easily 
reached in one way, and some in another ; while many stand aloof 
and defy almost all efforts to arrest their attention. This is true in 
every land, but especially in heathen lands. 



150 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

Hence the great variety of methods in missionary work. 
Perhaps the first way in which foreign laborers generally begin the 
spread of the gospel is through home influence, and especially family 
religion, the audience being their own domestics. By a life of impar- 
tiality, justice, honesty, purity, and kindness they are sometimes ena- 
bled to make a good impression upon their dependents even before they 
can speak well the language of the people. Then, as soon as possible, 
family worship is conducted at least once a day in the native tongue, 
and all servants are expected to be, and generally are, present. At 
this service the Bible is read, and perhaps explained, and God is ad- 
dressed at the throne of grace in simple words. It may be, too, that a 
Psalm is sung. The whole exercise, repeated in varied and attractive 
forms, is naturally impressive, and sometimes leads to saving results. 
And then, as occasion offers, the mistress of the home will read the 
Bible to her only female servant (the ayah or nurse) and teach her in a 
familiar manner the way of salvation. On the Sabbaths, also, when 
the family is on the hills or at a distance from regular preaching, all 
are called together at a suitable hour to hear a more extended and 
formal discourse in reference to divine things ; nor is this service neg- 
lected when the sahib is absent from home, as is often the case ; for 
his place is filled, and frequently well filled, by his wife. Indeed, the 
mem sahib a, as she is called, is the more powerful factor in this domes- 
tic missionary work, coming in contact with her dependents, as she- 
does, so frequently, and visiting their families so often in their own 
houses, especially during times of affliction. 

Of the value of this method of work, when employed in a proper 
manner and accompanied by sincere prayer, there can be no doubt. 
Beyond the missionary circle, too, it has been found very effective. It is 
said that almost all of Gen. Pryor's servants were brought thus to con- 
fess Christ. The sphere is not large ; but within this sphere the light 
may, for that very reason, be made to shine all the more powerfully. 

As a further extension of this method comes the influence which a 
missionary may exert over his employees. When itinerating, superin- 
tending a school or erecting a building, he always has under him a 
number of non-Christian teachers or laborers. The relation which he 
sustains to them forbids anything like compulsion in religious matters, 
and often requires him to bear patiently with their superstitions and 
Pharisaical forms. He must do nothing to break a Hindu's caste. 
He must allow a Muhammadan to say his prayers as frequently as his 



INFLUENCE TA r SOCIAL INTER COURSE 151 

conscience, or his desire to rest, demands such an exercise ; and that is 
generally pretty often.* But, notwithstanding this, his position as 
employer also gives a missionary the opportunity to speak a word occa- 
sionally in behalf of his own faith ; and by tact, with the blessing of 
God, he may sow seed which will afterwards bring forth fruit. Often 
a very tender feeling exists between an old employee and his superior, 
and on this feeling through divine help may be grafted the higher 
principles of spiritual life. At any rate prejudices against Christianity 
may thus be removed from the hearts of bricklayers, carpenters and 
coolies, and, through them, from the hearts of a whole community; 
and the common people generally may, in this way, even acquire an 
admiration for the character of the good sahib, who has ministered so 
largely to their temporal necessities, as well as for the religion which 
he represents. Thus a popular sentiment begins to spring up which is 
favorable to the spread of the gospel in other ways. 

Similar to this in some respects is the influence which a missionary 
exerts in his ordinary intercourse with others. Orientals, at least the 
people of India, are sociable in their nature ; and there is no subject 
upon which they are more willing to converse than that of religion. 
Reverence for a superior Power, or Being, is grounded in their nature 
so fundamentally that the absence of religious sentiment, and religious 
profession, in any one is considered a great disgrace ; and to call a 
man be-din, that is irreligious, is the greatest of insults. Skepticism 
and agnosticism are foreign products, and are found only among 
Europeans, or those educated natives who have come under the influ- 
ence of English infidelity. 

Easy then is it to draw out a business man, a loiterer, or a fellow- 
traveler on the subject which engrosses a missionary's thoughts. The 
reverse, which so generally, and, I may say, so unreasonably, prevails 
in Christian lands, is unknown in the far East. A companion's feel- 
ings are never hurt by a respectful reference to his religion. And 
every branch of the theme, too, may be touched. The nature of 
God's being, his relation to the universe, his modes of communication 

* Muhammadan law requires its adherents to pray five times a day : — just before 
sunrise ; shortly after noon ; about three or four P. M. ; just after sunset, and when 
night has set in. At three other periods prayers are optional — namely, when the 
sun is well up ; about eleven A. M., and after midnight. Each prayer is preceded 
by an ablution of the hands, face and feet ; and the whole exercise will average per- 
haps ten minutes in length. For attitudes in prayer, see illustration, p. 117. 



152 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

with men, human depravity, transmigration of souls, the consequences 
of sin, salvation, nirvana, temple or mosque worship, the mysteries of 
the Christian faith, the evidences of its superiority and a multitude of 
similar topics may be discussed without offense. Sometimes, indeed, 
one meets with scowling pundits, or rabid maulvies, who can them- 
selves say nothing pleasant to a Christian, and who can hear nothing 
opposed to their own views without anger. But generally the reverse 
is true. 

Hence, a great opportunity is given in the varied experiences of so- 
cial intercourse to present Christ and his salvation. As the mission- 
ary, or the native Christian, sits in a banya's shop, reposes under a 
pipal ox a banyan tree, trudges along a country road on foot, stops at a 
bungalow or a serai (native inn), watches the farmers at work in their 
fields, refreshes himself with a drink at some shaded well, chats with 
his neighbors, receives calls from high-caste babus, travels by rail or 
climbs the mountain steep, he can often drop a remark, or present a 
series of truths, which under the illumination of God's Spirit ends in a 
saving result. Well do I remember a religious talk which Dr. Gordon 
gave some Himalayan peasants whom we met at Kala Patthar — a big, 
black-faced stone on the side of a mountain 15,000 feet above the 
level of the sea. And of my own conversations by the way, one 
highly interesting is recalled which was held with a Hindu bachelor 
of arts, on the subject of prayer, as we were traveling together from 
Lala Musa to Bhera. 

In this way, too, as well as by the last mentioned, a favorable knowl- 
edge of Christianity is diffused among the masses of the people, and 
something done to create that Christian atmosphere which, it is hoped, 
will one day envelop the whole region and make conversion a com- 
paratively easy, natural and common process. 

And here, before advancing further, it might be well perhaps to cor- 
rect some false impressions which are abroad in certain quarters. 

One is that we can readily classify conversions so as to designate 
definitely by what methods they were secured. Occasionally, indeed, 
this may be done. Where a new convert has been reached only by 
one method, or where his religious experience is so distinct that he can 
point out the exact influence which has been used by the Spirit for his 
great change, we may feel some certainty in regard to the matter — just 
as, on the other hand, when a particular method has lain entirely out- 
side the range of anew convert's experience, we may confidently assert 



FALSE IMPRESSIONS CORRECTED 



153 



that it has had no influence over him. But in the case of many con- 
verts no such definite judgment can be given. Where missionary- 
methods are numerous, and often widely brought into use, and over- 
lap one another, and where inquirers, before taking a stand for Christ, 
touch missionary work at many points, it is frequently impossible to 
say just under what influence the tide began to turn. 




BANYAN TREE AND WELL. 
{From a Punjabi drawing. ) 

Equally difficult, therefore, is it for a missionary, or a native 
worker, to decide that this convert, or that, has been the fruit of his 
own individual labor. In inducing persons to enlist in the work of 
foreign missions, too much stress has sometimes been laid upon the 
idea that, while in Christian lands much uncertainty prevails on the 



154 LIFE AND WORK W WDIA 

subject, in heathen countries a minister may be quite sure what souls 
have been given to him for his hire — that is, he can positively say in 
regard to many professed Christians, " These have been given me as 
my crown of rejoicing ; I alone have been made the instrument of 
their conversion." But in comparatively few cases can Christian 
laborers there, any more than here, and especially foreign missionaries, 
make such assertions with any degree of confidence. Fellow-workers, 
fellow-Christians, Bibles, tracts and other agents or means of influence, 
are so numerous, and gospel methods are so dove-tailed one into 
the other, that we are compelled to say, "Not unto us, O Lord, not 
unto us, but unto thy name give glory." Blessed, indeed, is it to feel 
that one has a share in the movement — a part in founding God's church 
where other men have not labored; but for his full and exact hire every 
one must wait until results are classified by an infallible hand and 
each "shall receive his own reward according to his own labor. " 

And in harmony with all this may be observed the difficulty of de- 
termining the relative value of different methods of missionary work. 
Of course we may look at them a priori, and determine which are more 
or less likely to accomplish the end in view ; we may notice how far 
they correspond with the principles of human nature or the examples 
and the teachings of God's word; we may tell whether they tend to 
exalt human rather than divine wisdom, or civilization and culture 
rather than holiness ; we may note whether they give many and favor- 
able opportunities for religious effort, or the contrary ; we may even 
broadly make an estimate of their different results in the past and ascer- 
tain which upon the whole is apparently most useful. But at best the 
comparison is an imperfect one and should always be made with great 
respect for contrary views. 

Returning from this brief digression, it should perhaps be remarked 
next that the first formal evangelistic work which a missionary is likely 
to undertake, especially if he be a pioneer, is that of bazar preach- 
ing. A bazar is a street, or a square, where common business is done 
and where crowds assemble. There the shops, or stores, are found. 
There merchandise is sold or exchanged. A town, or city, may have 
several bazars, such as the grain bazar and the shawl bazar ; but gen- 
erally one of these is more prominent than the rest and hence is called 
the sadr, or big bazar. 

Bazar preaching is therefore what we call street preaching at home. 
Against this method of operation laws in India are not very strict, or 




(155) 



156 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

at least not very rigidly enforced. Fakirs of all kinds, jugglers and 
mountebanks may stop almost anywhere in the place of general con- 
course and for a time exhibit their shows, or perform their pranks. No 
one is likely to disturb them. So is it with the representatives of dif- 
ferent religious faiths. The bazar is comparatively free for the prop- 
agation of their tenets, or at least practically free. Christian work- 
ers, therefore, avail themselves of the liberty of there making known 
the gospel. 

If a foreign missionary be present little difficulty is experienced in 
securing an audience. Curiosity will lead people to crowd around a 
white man. They want to get a close view of his odd hat, dress, 
traveling rig * and manners, and see how he can talk their language. 
Like the Athenians also, they often wish to hear what the " babbler " 
has to say. They take a certain kind of delight in the " strange 
things" that are brought to their ears. At least what they see and 
hear gives them occasion and materials for gossip. 

Should the collection of an audience be delayed, however, perhaps 
some one strikes up a spiritual song — either a Psalm set to Western music, 
or a bhajan — and is joined in singing by his companions. In some 
Missions a concertina, cornet or other musical instrument is often em- 
ployed. In either case the exercise is almost sure to arrest the atten- 
tion of wayfarers. Music has charms to soothe and please the Indian ear. 
In rare instances, pictures, religious or otherwise, are presented to at- 
tract the eye — either with or without a magic lantern. Very often, 
however, a bazar preacher, without any other preliminary, immedi- 
ately begins with the reading of God's Word. This itself will draw 
people around him in most cases. 

And, however the audience may have been secured, such an exercise 
as this at any rate almost always forms the first part of the service 
proper. Nothing is more likely to win the hearers under such circum- 
stances. Indian people of all classes have great reverence for any 
Book which claims to be of divine origin. The preacher may be falli- 
ble ; but if he has a "Thus saith the Lord" for what he proclaims, 
prejudice is disarmed. The authenticity and the genuineness of the 
volume are matters of secondary consideration, and do not affect the 
primary attitude of their minds. 

Generally a plain passage of Scripture is selected — a parable, or a 
miracle, the story of Christ's death, the history of the fall of our first 
* A bicycle attracts multitudes. 



BAZAR PREACHING 157 

parents, or a description of human depravity ; and this, or the Psalm 
sung, becomes the basis of an address which is made as practical and 
personal as possible. Remarks are also offered by others besides the 
principal speaker, and variety introduced. But, for obvious reasons, 
prayer is frequently omitted. 

While these exercises are in progress the audience is constantly 
changing. One man goes and another comes. There may indeed be 
an entire alteration of the constituent elements of the assembly. 
Only one thing is certain : all will be men. If a woman hears any- 
thing it will be through a latticed window overhead, or from the coun- 
ter of a neighboring salesman where she is transacting business ; possi- 
bly from the roof of a house which forms part of her zenana. 

In its primitive form bazar preaching means that the preacher must 
stand on the public highway and proclaim his message. But a banya 
often allows you to sit on his counter,* or, if he has such an article, 
will offer you a chair, which, under the circumstances, is a great boon. 
As the years roll on, too, some shop will be hired and made the basis 
of operations — serving not only as a bookstore, or a reading-room, but 
also as a point where morning and evening the gospel may be pro- 
claimed to passers-by. Such centers have been established in Jhelum, 
Pathankot, Sialkot, and perhaps other places. Where this is the case, 
even if the police should appear and order your hearers to " move 
on," you are yourself perfectly secure, sitting as you do in your own 
rented house. 

It must not be supposed by any that quietness is the distinguishing 
characteristic of a bazar audience. Far from it. Many persons, indeed, 
listen respectfully and make no sign of either approval or disapproval. 
But it is different with others. A few exhibit astonishment at the good 
news. Some, especially Hindus, will cry out "That's all true," or 
u The Sahib is right," or " Your religion is good for you, and ours is 
good for us; let every one follow the path that his fathers trod." 
Some will ask questions — often of the most difficult or irrelevant char- 
acter — and try to embarrass the preacher or get up a laugh at his ex- 
pense. Some — Muhammadan bigots or Aryans, for instance — will 
present objections, or flatly contradict the speaker, reading perhaps 

* This is simply the front edge of the floor of his stall. It faces the street and is 
two feet or two and one-half feet high. Any one who has ever seen the shops of 
Pompeii or of modern Italian towns can easily understand the architecture of our 
Indian bazars. 



158 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

out of the Koran, or an infidel book, to establish their points ; and 
frequently bystanders of this class will try to break up the meeting, 
or turn it into an assemblage for the propagation of their own religious 
views. Occasionally, too, they carry their violence so far that the po- 
lice are asked to interfere and quell disturbance. 

As might be supposed, therefore, every one does not make a good 
bazar preacher. Ready wit, a quick ear and a nimble tongue are nec- 
essary for success in this capacity — also that mysterious power by 
which men can naturally overawe opposition and keep a restless audi- 
ence under control. 

Of the value of this method of evangelization on the whole, how- 
ever, there can be no doubt. In some cases definite conversions are 
reported ; in others, persons are led to become inquirers and frequent 
callers on the missionary or his assistants — the final result being a full 
confession of faith. Often men hear something of Christ in this way 
who are never otherwise brought within the sound of the gospel.* An 
opportunity is thus given also to discover the spontaneous sentiments 
of the people, their great difficulties, and the objections that active 
opponents make to the truth which we proclaim. Even the wrangles 
which are started and the bitter words which are sometimes spoken by 
enemies, may be so managed, or answered, as to secure the complete 
discomfiture of our assailants and turn the tide of general feeling in 
our favor. A quick and happy repartee will often drive an opponent 
disarmed from the field. While, then, bazar preaching is a difficult 
mode of evangelism, and should not be employed by those who are con- 
stitutionally unfitted for it, and while its place is no doubt being 
gradually taken by bazar chapels, and other methods of work which 
are quieter and more successful, it is not only one of the most interest- 
ing and picturesque ways of preaching Christ, but it has also been an 
important agency in the spread of the glad tidings of salvation and the 
diffusion of that knowledge without which the heathen must perish. 

Of a quieter and perhaps more useful character is what may be called 
back street, private court, or mahalla preaching. This takes 
place beyond the din of the bazar, in some retired part of the town or 
city — on a vacant lot, at a point where several ways meet, or in the 
outer court of some friendly man's house. Perhaps the people of the 
neighborhood are brought together by previous visits to their houses, 
or messengers sent to announce the time and the place of preaching ; 
or perhaps a drum, singing, or a display of pictures answers the same 



PREACHING AT ME LAS 



159 



purpose. Generally a light bedstead, called a charpai, is brought out 
for the preacher to sit upon. Here, as in the bazar, the main part of 
the hearers will be men ; but frequently women also are seen peeping 
around the corners of the walls or over the edges of the house roofs. 
Besides the freedom from disturbance which this method usually brings, 
it also insures a more homogeneous company of listeners, and the mes- 
senger of divine truth can regulate his thoughts and words accordingly. 




GREAT MELA AT HARDWAR — HINDUS BATHING. 



Each mahalla, or ward, is generally inhabited almost exclusively by 
one kind of people — Hindus, Muhammadans, Sikhs or some other class. 
Moreover, when the service is finished at one point the preacher and 
his assistant can move on to another quarter and obtain a new audience. 
Thus a great variety of work can be done and a large number of hear- 
ers can be reached. 

Preaching at melas partakes very largely of the characteristics of 



160 . LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

bazar preaching. A mela (or fair) is a great gathering of people as- 
sembled for the purpose of celebrating some religious event, or for com- 
mercial purposes ; and very often both objects are combined. It also 
provides an occasion for friendly intercourse and for amusements of 
every description. Almost always such melas are held at stated places 
— near a temple, a shrine or a celebrated tomb. Every one, too, has 
its appointed season — generally annual, but sometimes after longer in- 
tervals. 

Of these there are two each in our Sialkot and Gurdaspur fields of 
sufficient importance to be specially mentioned — besides others else- 
where. One is that held in April at the shrine called Ber Baba Nanak 
near Sialkot. Here the Baisakhi festival at the commencement of the 
new Hindu year is kept with great rejoicing, as many as ten or fifteen 
thousand people being sometimes in attendance. Another is the cattle 
fair held at Gulu Shah's tomb, about six miles from Pasrur, " which 
lasts a week and on the principal day (September 21st) is attended by 
over 70,000 persons, who come from all parts' of the province." The 
two belonging to our Gurdaspur field are held — one at Kalanaur, in 
March, and the other at Pindori, seven miles east of Gurdaspur City, 
in April. Gujranwala District also furnishes some important fairs, 
especially one of the Sikhs at Eminabad, and one, which lasts a month, 
at Drunkel, in honor of Pir Lakh Datta. 

When a Christian laborer wishes to proclaim the gospel at such 
places he usually puts up one or more tents and provides sittings (mats 
or benches) for a large number of people. This indicates that he 
" means business," encourages people to tarry and listen, and insures 
better order than he would have in a tired, restless, standing crowd — 
to say nothing of the comfort which it brings to himself. He also 
secures as many assistants as possible, so as to keep the time fully oc- 
cupied and provide variety of entertainment. Sometimes the whole 
working force of a District may be called in for such occasions. And 
then, to obtain the best results, the speakers will be thoroughly or- 
ganized for their particular work, study up specially assigned subjects 
and come prepared to make effective addresses. Psalms also are often 
sung at intervals, tracts distributed and every effort made to impress 
and instruct the people. 

Were it not for the general din and confusion of the mela, a con- 
gregation of 500 or 1000 persons might often be collected within the 
sound of the preacher's voice ; but, owing to the cause mentioned, not 



RESULTS OF PREACHING AT ME LAS 



161 



more than about 200 can comfortably hear the gospel at any one time. 
Still the results are sometimes wonderful. Frequently persons have 
been brought to confess Christ then and there, and some have even 
broken caste and received baptism before the assembled throng. This 
was a common experience under 
the preaching of the Rev. S. 
Knowles of the M. E. Mission, 
Gonda. But such baptisms 
were discouraged within our 
own field, and at last by the 
Methodists themselves — partly 
because there was so little op- 
portunity of testing the genuine- 
ness of the conversions, and 
partly because the applicants 
often lived at a great distance, 
even beyond the bounds of the 
minister's mission territory, and 
the initial step could not be fol- 
lowed up with suitable pastoral 
care and instruction. 

Like bazar preaching, how- 
ever, preaching at melas helps 
much the diffusion of gospel 
light and the preparation for 
successful work in other ways. 

In 1883 some men from the neighborhood of the Ravi river came 
to our missionaries in Gurdaspar and Zafarwal for baptism, who had 
heard the gospel at a mela and had thus become convinced of its 
truth ; and. after inquiry, it was found that the good leaven had spread 
in their neighborhood to such an extent, through their instrumentality, 
as to affect many villages and over 200 people. 




SEARCHING THE JUNGLE. 




11 



CHAPTER XVI 




EVANGELISTIC WORK— II 

The Educational Policy — Dr. Duffs Course — Government Education, its History 
and Provisions — Mission Schools — Their Lack of Conversions — Causes — 
Arguments Against the Educational Policy — Arguments in Favor of it — 
Present Duty — Policy of the U. P. Mission — Conclusion. 

Y an educational method of evangelism is meant that 

which contemplates the conversion of the young through 

the opportunities given, and the influence acquired, in 

training their minds and communicating to them secular 

knowledge. 

The Rev. Alexander Duff, D.D., LL.D., is usually considered the 
founder of this policy. He landed at Calcutta May 27, 1830, and 
several weeks afterward, in accordance with his instructions, opened 
up a school in that city which soon grew into a college. This policy, 
as has been remarked, "was to substitute for the existing evangelistic 
work amongst the lower classes of Indian Society an educational work 
among the Brahmans. It was maintained that in this way Hinduism 
would be attacked at its heart, that when once the influence of Western 
science and philosophy had been brought to bear upon the philosophy 
and the pseudo-science of Hinduism, the whole system would crumble 
to the dust ; and, over and above all else, that as the Brahmans were 
the recognized leaders of Hindu life, their conversion would be 
speedily followed by the conversion of the whole nation."* As he 
himself said to the people of Scotland, " We shall, with the blessing 
of God, devote our time and strength to the preparation of a mine, 
and the setting of a train, which shall one day explode and tear up the 
whole from its lowest depths." 

His college soon became a great success. More than one thousand 
names were found on its rolls. Lord Wm. Bentinck, the Governor- 



* Methodist Times. 



(162) 



GOVERNMENT EDUCATION IN INDIA 163 

General of the day, pronounced the result, in an educational point of 
view, unparalleled. " From the very first, too, the Bible itself was made 
a school-book and class-book, and so made distinctly, avowedly and 
exclusively for religious and devotional exercises." * 

Evangelistic and missionary services in the English language were 
also carried on outside of the college by the principal and his associ- 
ates, and their -successors. And, as the consequence of all, many im- 
portant conversions took place. Dr. Duff's converts were for fifty 
years frequently seen in different parts of India, and they were also 
considered an important and influential class of Christians. 

Later, however, a marked change in the situation took place. The 
education of the people was recognized as a duty of the government, 
and colleges and schools were opened up under its management and 
support. In 1854, too, a comprehensive despatch on the subject was 
sent out to India by Sir Charles Wood (afterwards Lord Halifax) which 
is called the basis and charter of the present educational system, hav- 
ing been confirmed by subsequent administrations. 

Under the stimulus thus given, schools of every grade sprang up in 
all important places. Some of them were started, managed and sup- 
ported altogether by the Provincial Governments themselves ; but 
many were simply aided schools managed by local bodies, or religious 
societies. In 189 1 the total number of educational institutions of all 
sorts in India was 138,054, attended by an aggregate of 3,682,707 
pupils — showing an average of about one school to every eleven and 
one-half square miles of territory and one pupil to every seventy-eight 
of the whole population. Many of these institutions are colleges and 
high schools, or in other words, schools directly preparing for college. 
Of the former there are now 105 arts colleges, with 12,165 students, 
and special schools for the professions, containing 3424 students. 

In each Province, too, a Director of Public Instruction was ap- 
pointed, with assistants of every kind, and especially Inspectors of 
every grade, whose duty it is to visit regularly all schools having any 
connection with the government system and see that they come up 
in every particular to the required standard. 

More than this, several Universities were established, chiefly on the 
model of the University of London. Three of these — Calcutta, 

*Badley's Directory. f See also pp. 121, 122 and 165. 



164 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

Madras and Bombay — were incorporated in 1857. The University of 
the N. W. Provinces is of more recent origin, as also is the Punjab 
University. The latter was called into existence October 14, 1882; 
but its work had been virtually performed since 1870 by the Punjab 
University College. These Universities are almost exclusively examin- 
ing bodies, with the privilege of conferring degrees in arts, law, 
medicine and civil engineering. " Though not themselves places of 
instruction, the Universities control the whole course of higher edu- 
cation by means of their examinations. The entrance examination for 
matriculation is open to all, but when that is passed, candidates for 
higher stages must enroll themselves in one or other of the affiliated 
colleges." * 

A ten year's course of study precedes matriculation — three in the 
Lower Primary ; two in the Upper Primary ; three in the Middle and 
two in what is called the Entrance. In the college course proper there 
are four years — two up to F. A. and two more to B. A. Then there 
are special courses for M. A. and a dozen other degrees. 

In 1881-2 a viceregal Education Committee was employed to inquire 
into the condition and needs of the whole system and suggest changes. 
The modifications recommended by this Commission were chiefly 
those that would bring it more fully into accord with the principles of 
the great despatch of 1854, which hitherto had been only imperfectly 
followed. That despatch, while recognizing as a government function 
the education of the people, provided for the restriction of efforts in 
behalf of higher education, which could only be reached by the few, 
and the increase of efforts to diffuse elementary education among the 
many. It also provided that high-class institutions "should be pro- 
moted, not so much by direct government action as by giving grants- 
in-aid, and by special attention to help on independent efforts to 
educate the masses." 

The modifications proposed by the Education Commission began to 
be introduced in the Punjab on April 1, 1886, which forms on that ac- 
count a marked era in our Punjab educational history. The chief 
changes made were, first, the transference of more power to Munici- 
pal Committees and other local bodies ; secondly, the requisition of 
heavier fees from high-grade students; thirdly, the payment of grants- 

*Sir William Hunter. 



MISSION SCHOOLS 165 

in-aid, not by special enactment, but according to results ; and fourthly, 
the commencement of zamindari (or farmers') schools, with a special 
course of study.* 

As missionaries had been pioneers in educational work, so they 
adapted themselves to the governmental system as it developed from 
time to time, and utilized it as far as they could for the purpose of dis- 
seminating Bible truth and converting souls. Indeed mission schools 
of every grade are reckoned among the best in India. Presbyterians 
especially have taken an advanced position in the work of high educa- 
tion. Of all the matriculations reported by Protestant Missions in 
India from 1872 to 1890, more than forty-five per cent, are credited to 
Presbyterians; while of F. A.s they claimed more than seventy-seven 
per cent., of B. A.s more than ninety-one per cent., and of M. A.s 
seventy-four out of a total of seventy-five ; and had the Bombay Free 
Church College reported its results it is probable that these percent- 
ages would have been materially increased. The Free Church of Scot- 
land, too, it should be remarked, excels all the rest of its order in this 
department and may be termed the leading educational missionary 
body of that land. Of high schools also, Presbyterians have a much 
larger proportionate share than any other ecclesiastical family in India, 
unless it be the Congregational. 

The number of conversions, however, secured by this method of 
" missionating " is now confessedly much below what it was at the 
beginning; and, as a consequence, those denominations which have 
devoted much of their strength to it have fallen far behind others in 
the evangelization of their field. 

Some of the reasons for this result are obvious. 

First, it is probable that there has not been for some years as much 
earnest, prayerful and persistent effort to save souls through educa- 
tional work as there once was. This is owing to various causes. 
(1) The University system now dominates the whole movement and 

* While, absolutely considered, great progress has been effected in educational 
work since it was commenced by the British in India, it must not be imagined by any 
one that, relatively considered, this work has made much headway. Where only one 
in seventy-eight of the population is a school pupil and less than six per cent, of the 
people can read or write in any tongue, and only one in 800 can read and write 
English, there is evidently much, and very much, yet to be done. Especially is 
this so in the case of females, of whom it is said only one in 173 can read and 
write. See pp. 121, 122 and 163. 



166 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

leads mission schools, as well as others, to aim not so much at spiritual 
as educational results. The great ambition among pupils is to pass 
their examinations, secure their certificates, or diplomas, and prepare 
themselves for positions in government service, or elsewhere. For this 
object, too, more than anything else, all non-Christian teachers and 
inspectors labor in behalf of the pupils; and too frequently the same 
thing becomes, consciously or unconsciously, the leading aim of 
Christian teachers, and even of missionary superintendents and pro- 
fessors themselves. Conversion of souls becomes a secondary matter. 
(2) Again, mission high schools and colleges are largely dependent 
upon fees for support and must be managed so as to please the pupils 
and hasten their educational advancement, or they will become un- 
popular and fall to the rear. Religious instruction is therefore given 
at a disadvantage and is likely to degenerate into a merely literary 
exercise or a means of intellectual stimulus. (3) Again, as govern- 
ment grants-in-aid are regulated in amount by the size of the roll, the 
attendance of the scholars, success at examinations and other similar 
considerations, managers of mission schools are strongly tempted to 
make everything bend in this direction ; and, as Bible teaching counts 
for nothing pecuniarily, it is in danger of being neglected. (4) Again, 
owing to the fact that there are now many rival, non-Christian schools, 
mission institutions cannot be as independent as they were in the days 
of Dr. Duff and cannot regulate their course altogether to suit the 
highest ends of religious work. (5) Again, the conversion of a pupil, 
culminating in baptism, always makes a great commotion, disturbs the 
discipline of a school, and sometimes almost destroys it — a conse- 
quence which its managers will try to avoid. (6) Finally, the idea 
that educational missionaries should aim primarily and especially at 
the Christian ization of their pupils seems to have been distinctly 
abandoned by some. One of the professors in one of the leading 
Christian colleges of India is said to have written as follows: " 'All 
we want you to remember,' some one has said, ' is that you are mission- 
aries first and educationists after.' That is the very point that I deny. 
We are not missionaries first and educationists after, but missionaries 
in, and through and by education, and it is only as we realize this that 
our work can become truly and permanently effective. If we are to 
regard our schools and colleges as preaching places where the instruc- 
tion we give in philosophy, science and history is an entirely sub- 
ordinate thing, performing merely the function of attraction, like the 



OBJECTIONS TO THE EDUCATIONAL POLICY 167 

drum of the Salvation Army or the orchestra at St. James' Hall, then 
I for one say, Let us give them up, and hand over the work of educa- 
tion to those who will do it honestly." 

But even when religious impressions are made on pupils during 
school hours, they are probably not now followed up. as fully and per- 
sistently as they once were by private evangelistic efforts ; and this is 
another reason why educational work is not so successful in converting 
pupils as it was in former days. 

More than this : when the educational policy was started there were 
not many half-way houses between Christianity and heathenism, where 
pupils, disgusted with gross idolatry and only partly convinced of the 
truth of Bible doctrines, could rest and gratify their reforming tenden- 
cies. Now we have the Brahma Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the Deva 
Dharm Samaj, and other similar organizations. Here the awakened 
are likely to go and stay. 

And then God's plan, from the days of the apostles, seems to have 
ever been to advance the spread of the gospel more among the poor, 
the despised and the downtrodden than among the rich, the proud and 
the domineering. In every age and country it has been comparatively 
true, that " not many mighty, not many noble are called." "God 
hath chosen the foolish things of the world to confound the wise." * 
No wonder then that Educational Missions, which work mostly among 
high-caste people, make a less favorable show in church statistics than 
those that pursue a different policy. 

As a consequence of the long-continued paucity of converts from this 
policy many missionaries attack it as entirely unjustifiable, and in do- 
ing so bring up additional objections, which they consider overwhelm- 
ing. They say that it is not the plan of Christ and his apostles ; that 
Paul's preaching in the school ofTyrannus was not a parallel case ; 
that it secularizes Christian Missions and leads the servants of Christ 
to spend much time and strength on intellectual and worldly matters 
which ought to be spent in religious work ; that it tempts to an un- 
natural and somewhat enslaving alliance between the church and the 
state ; that it leads to the acceptance of money as grants-in-aid which 
has been obtained by the opium trade, and otherwise tainted with cor- 
ruption ; that it tends to produce among missionaries a class of govern- 
ment apologists, men who are ready to defend public immoralities; 
that in more advanced institutions it pampers the pride, arrogance and 

*See Chapter XXI. 



168 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

intolerance of educational missionaries and cultivates a spirit far from 
Christ-like; that it gives heads of colleges and their associated pro- 
fessors undue prominence in missionary conferences and councils, and 
magnifies their influence far beyond that of Christian laborers who sur- 
pass them in years, experience and evangelistic success, thus marring 
the general course of missionary movements ; that it assists a class of 
natives who least need help in India and neglects the rest ; that it aids 
to swell the list of educated, unemployed, and dangerous political agi- 
tators, a class which the government itself is striving to diminish; that 
it puts a sword into the hand of Christ's enemies and sharpens the in- 
tellects of those who are avowedly anti- Christian ; that it has pro- 
duced the only organized rivalry and opposition to mission work; that, 
by teaching English, it opens up to educated natives the whole armory 
of Western rationalism and infidelity ; that it spends money on heathen 
teachers which ought to be expended on Christian preachers, and 
diverts missionary funds in some degree from the great object for which 
they were collected ; that it leads to the neglect of work among vil- 
lagers, low-caste people and others who have shown themselves more 
ready than the higher classes to embrace Christianity; that it leads to 
the neglect of Christian youth and retards the development of a vigor- 
ous, highly equipped and aggressive Christian Church ; that it relies 
upon the assistance of high-caste converts and the power of educated 
intellect, in other words upon an "arm of flesh," to evangelize India, 
rather than upon the Spirit of the living God ; and that Providence, by 
refusing to bless it, has set upon it the seal of his condemnation. 

On the other hand, supporters of schools claim that a certain amount 
of intelligence and mental training are necessary properly to appre- 
hend the gospel ; that the higher classes should not be altogether 
neglected ; that the educational method is about the only one which 
can be employed to reach them ; that by this policy we can influence 
them at an impressible period of life ; that though there are few con- 
verts, these few are exceedingly important and in after years become a 
great power for good ; that, besides the few who are actually baptized, 
there are some secret converts ; that science tends to destroy Hindu 
superstition and prepare the way for the gospel ; that all pupils of 
mission schools get correct views of Christianity and help to prevent 
or dispel the false notions of our religion which are so likely to spring 
up among their countrymen ; that most pupils become friends of the 
missionaries and give them valuable assistance in their village and other 



DEFENSE OF THE EDUCATIONAL POLICY 169 

work ; that good schools keep Missions prominently before the public 
and help to establish their reputation ; that an impression also is thus 
produced that missionaries desire the advancement of the natives in 
civilization ; that educational institutions furnish a medium through 
which to reach the parents and the friends of the pupils ; that by es- 
tablishing courses of lectures, reading rooms and opportunities for 
personal intercourse a college may be made the centre of a great net- 
work of influences which will tell for good upon the whole commun- 
ity ; that an educational policy brings us into contact with govern- 
ment officials and makes them interested in all our work ; that if we 
do not educate the higher classes either the Government or Popery 
will, producing as a consequence either rank infidelity or a new form 
of superstition ; that schools afford missionaries a field for work at all 
seasons and in all kinds of weather ; that mission colleges, though es- 
tablished primarily for the heathen, furnish places where aspiring 
Christian students also may go and receive a good education under 
Christian influence ; * that these colleges will eventually, indeed, be- 
come entirely Christian and carry with themselves into the Christian 
Church all the prestige of their preceding fame, and that some of our 
higher institutions are almost self-supporting and require very little of 
the funds of Mission Boards. 

The controversy thus brought before us is of long standing, and, 
as years advance seems to increase in intensity and bitterness. Nothing 
for instance in the late Decennial Missionary Conference at Bombay 
created deeper feeling than this subject. And what makes the matter 
more perplexing is that men of undoubted piety, great ability and 
deep evangelical earnestness are to be found on both sides of the 
question. 

While the writer would say nothing against primary education as a 
means of preparing people for reading the Scriptures and receiving the 
gospel and is persuaded that higher education is also an important 
means of developing believers and strengthening the Christian Church, 
and ought to be carried on, even to the most advanced standard, 
where the number of Christian students justifies it, he cannot but think 
that in India, under existing circumstances, the arguments of those who 
oppose higher education as at present conducted for evangelistic pur- 

* Twenty-five Christian students were on the roll of the Lahore Christian College 
for the year 1893. Of I2 4 2 students in the Mission Colleges of Madras Presidency 
for 1890-91, 143 were either Europeans or native Christians. 



170 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

poses are weighter than the arguments of the other side and should 
prevail. 

If so, what ought to be done? 

One of three courses is suggested. 

First, reform the present methods. Let Christian teachers take the 
place of those that are non-Christian.* Improve the course of Scrip- 
ture study. Put the best work upon Bible recitations. Be less solicit- 
ous for fees, or attendance, or educational results, than for the salva- 
tion of souls. Throw around the school on Sabbaths, and at other 
seasons, more religious exercises. Hold protracted meetings under the 
direction of specially qualified evangelists. Encourage private in- 
quiry. Be not afraid to baptize a convert. Secure the establishment 
of a Christian University which will put a premium upon religious 
knowledge and use the weight of its great influence in behalf of the 
truth. 

Or secondly, abolish as fast as possible all institutions above the 
Primary which have a purely evangelistic object, or make them almost 
exclusively schools for Christians. Owing to obligations previously 
incurred, this work of abolition may sometimes be very difficult ; but 
in few cases, should time be given, would it be found impossible. 

Or thirdly, turn over all such institutions to the government, or 
better still, to some other society, whose object will accord more fully 
with the actual results than that of a purely missionary body. If peo- 
ple wish to give Hindus and Muhammadans the benefits of our West- 
ern education under Christian management let them do so through As- 
sociations formed for that particular purpose. 

Our own Mission has generally pursued a middle course in regard 
to this matter ; and her work from an educational point of view has 
been largely successful. In April, 1883, she abolished her Boys' 
School in Jhelum, but all along has continued her High Schools at 
Gujranwala and Sialkot. She also has kept up Girls' Schools for the 
heathen in Gujranwala, Jhelum and some other places; but in 1882 
she stopped those that had been carried on in Sialkot, although these 
were revived again in 1893. Into village Christian Schools also a 
limited number of non-Christians have been admitted, ever since they 
were started. 

* Some non-Christian teachers, however, are remarkably true to their employers. 
Only their example is against our cause. Those who have been long in mission ser- 
vice and have done faithful work ought to be treated considerately and justly. 



172 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

The Rawal Pindi High School, whose roll in November, 1894, con- 
tained 1 160 names, was not founded by our Mission, but came to us in 
1892 from the American Presbyterian Mission, and has been continued 
since that time, partly for the sake of perpetuating the work which had 
already been begun there. But we alone are responsible for starting 
(in 1893) a College department in connection with this school and 
providing means of instruction to students, especially non-Christians, 
as far up as F. A.* 

The Gujranwala High School for Boys, under Dr. McKee and 
others, has for many years been kept in the front rank as to numbers 
and educational excellence. Sometimes it reports over a thousand 
scholars;')" and a large percentage of its candidates every year pass 
the University examinations. The Central and Branch Schools for 
girls in the same place have had an interesting history under the suc- 
cessive direction of Misses Calhoun, Wilson, Mukarji and others ; and 
such also has been the case with the Jhelum Girls' School, under 
Misses Anderson, Given, and their successors. 

Of these institutions, however, none but the High Schools and the 
College carry education to an advanced stage, or are much influenced 
by the University system. And in all of them special effort is made 
to give thorough religious instruction. Every day's exercises in the 
Boys' Schools are opened with the reading of a passage of Scripture, 
and prayer, and sometimes an address ; and one period (say three 
quarters of an hour) is devoted in each class to Christian teaching. 
Even on Sabbaths the pupils are generally assembled together for di- 
vine service, or special lessons in the Bible ; and in Girls' Schools 
Christian text-books are used. 

True, many of the teachers in these institutions and all the callers J 
in the Girls' Schools are non-Christians; and, in the necessarily frequent 
absence of the Christian overseer, abuses are apt to creep in. True, also, 
the missionary is sometimes led to teach a secular subject, and may be 
kept by his school duties from evangelistic efforts in distant villages. 

But probably there are no similar institutions in India where the 

* First Arts — the end of the Sophomore year. 

f In December, 1893, there were 1024 on the roll. Recently there has been con- 
siderable decrease. 

% A caller is a kind of chaperon employed to gather up the children from their 
homes and take them to and from the schoolroom. See Gal. 3 : 24. They are al- 
most always poor widows, and somewhat elderly. 



RESULT OF OUR SCHOOL WORK 173 

single aim of saving souls is kept more constantly before the minds of 
those who are conducting them, or where they are allowed to interfere 
less with other efforts to spread the gospel. 

Little direct result, however, in the way of making converts, has 
come from all our labors in this department. Some pupils, indeed, 
have confessed Christ and become active helpers in doing good ; and 
others have appeared to be deeply impressed. But the chief benefits 
experienced from this policy with us, as in other Missions, have been 
of that more general character to which reference has already been 
sufficiently made. 

Hence the writer is not disposed to apologize for the continuance 
of our own higher school work as an evangelizing agency. He thinks 
that it is involved in many of the same evils which opponents of an edu- 
cational policy have been constrained to condemn elsewhere, and, being 
almost destitute of spiritual fruit, should, therefore, be treated in one or 
other of the three ways that have been suggested. Especially does he en- 
tertain this view regarding the incipient College at Rawal Pindi. The 
establishment of this institution was a distinct departure from the 
policy which we had previously adopted, as well as from the policy of 
our predecessors in that station. In view of the paucity of our forces, 
the doubts which many entertain of the usefulness of even High Schools 
as a means of converting the heathen, and the fact that one good Christian 
College had already been started in the Punjab where all of our con- 
verts who wished to do so could pursue their education, the writer is 
aware of no reason by which it can be justified. 





women's jewels. 



CHAPTER XVII 




EVANGELISTIC WORK— III 

Zenana and Medical Work — Conversion of Indian Women — Its Importance — Igno- 
rance of these Women — Their Power in the Home — The Zenana Described — 
The Zenana Worker's Experience and Methods — Her Advantages and Disad- 
vantages — Results — Medical Missionary Work — Its Growth and Necessity — 
Objections and Benefits — Our Own Special Efforts in this Line — A History and 
a Report. 

[ET us now notice special methods, other than that of 
schools, which have been employed by us to secure the 
conversion of Indian women. 

It would be hard to exaggerate the importance of reach- 
ing this class with the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ. Not only are 
they a numerous part (almost one-half) of the population, and found 
in every home, but they are generally much more ignorant and super- 
stitious than the men and lack the opportunities enjoyed by the latter 
to acquire knowledge. Men and boys can go without restriction to 
the bazars and melas and mingle with their fellows in every crowd that 
promises interesting or useful experience. For years, too, many of 
them have been attending schools where they have acquired training 
and scientific information. But from the time that they are nine years 
of age, members of the weaker sex, in families of any pretension, must 
confine themselves to their own homes; or, if occasionally they appear 
abroad, it must be under a heavy veil or in a closed palanquin. Girls' 
(174) 



HINDRANCES IN A HINDU HOME 175 

Schools, moreover, are of recent origin, embrace only a few pupils,* 
and reach these few only for a short time, as early marriage is the 
general rule, and once a girl is married she rarely interests herself in 
school life. Nor have Orientals yet got over the idea that it is a dis- 
graceful thing for a man to teach his own wife and daughters. 

In many houses, therefore, a great gulf separates the two sexes. As 
a native newspaper says : 

"The educated native is nowhere so miserable as in his own home, 
and by none is he so much embarrassed as by his female relations. 
His private life may be said to be at antipodes with his public career. 
In public he may be a Demosthenes in oratory, or a Luther in reform; 
in his home he is but a timid, crouching Hindu, yielding unquestion- 
ing submission to the requisitions of a superstitious family. Between 
husband and wife there can be no rational conversation, no hearty ex- 
change of thought and sympathies, no co-operation in really useful 
undertakings, and no companionship. They cannot possibly agree, 
and so long as the illiterate wife governs the household according to her 
orthodox prejudices, the nation cannot make any real advancement." 

And these remarks are especially true in regard to religious progress. 
So long as mother, sister, wife and daughter remain in darkness so 
long must husband, brother and son virtually remain so too. None are 
more ready to drive away from home a Christian convert than the fe- 
male members of his own household. Hence, the conversion of In- 
dian women is not only important in itself — as important intrinsically 
as the conversion of men — but it bears a very close relation to the lat- 
ter. How can we expect any great relaxation of the rules of caste, or 
any great movement among families, or even among the male heads of 
families, toward Christianity, until the female sex is enlightened ? 
The ignorance and heathenish condition of women is, perhaps, the 
greatest barrier, now found in India, to the spread of divine truth. 
" When we get the women of India on our side, with a Christian in- 
telligence to guide them, and with warm sympathy for their husbands, 
then," says a distinguished missionary, "the battle will be won." 

*The number of female pupils in all India reported in the year 1890 was 
294,036; of males, 3,325,105, or more than eleven times as many males as females. 
Even our own Mission reported only 1037 girls in her schools at the close of 1893, 
although she had 4823 boys under instruction. And in 1894 when 4679 male pupils 
were reported, only 1097 female scholars appeared on the rolls — that is, just about 
one-seventh of the whole attendance. 



176 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

One method by which an effort is made to reach this class is that of 
zenana visitation. 

The word zenana, or zanana, is of Persian origin, and is derived 
from zan, which means a woman. Anything is zenana which pertains 
to a woman. Hence, the application of the word to that part of 
Oriental houses which women occupy. This is generally the inner 
or the rear portion of the dwelling, and often it is furnished in the 
shabbiest manner. Men appropriate to themselves the front and more 
exposed parts of the house — which are also, of course, the cheeriest ; 
and, if any fine furniture adorns the establishment, there is the place 
where it is most likely to be found. But sometimes the zenana part 
also is well finished and well supplied with every requisite. Nothing 
could have been more elegant than the zenana section of an Aryan 
gentleman's house in Miani, which the author saw before it was occu- 
pied by his family. It consisted of several stories of rooms and veran- 
das, surrounding, as usual, a central court, which supplied air and 
light to all. But money was not spared in its construction. Its panel- 
work painting, its Sanskrit mottoes in gold and variegated colors, its 
splendid wall mirrors, its carved screens and polished hard-wood 
frames, its ceilings dazzling with pictures and tiny looking-glasses, its 
bay-windows and cabinets — all exhibited the highest style of Indian 
art. 

Into such places as this, and into other abodes far less pretentious, 
the zenana worker goes with her message of love. 

In our field she finds little difficulty of entrance. Probably ten 
times as many houses are open as can be reached by all the ladies and 
their assistants. Even after the great excitement against such work in 
Jhelum, which occurred during the year 1884, two hundred zenanas could 
be counted as still open to the lady missionary. Nor is the visitor (or 
visitors, for usually two work together) required to leave her Bible be- 
hind her when she goes into these places. Nor yet is it necessary for her 
to teach embroidery, or knitting, or any other accomplishment as an in- 
troduction to higher work. The prospect of learning to read and 
getting acquainted with a more advanced condition of society is usu- 
ally sufficient inducement to overcome every objection. True, there 
are unaspiring women, and surly husbands, and closed houses, espe- 
cially among the Muhammadans. But the rule is otherwise, and 
sometimes ardent longing for a missionary's visits reigns in the heart 
of a zenana. 



EXPERIENCE OF ZENANA WORKERS 



177 



According to their own account zenana workers meet with a varied 
experience. Occasionally there is a great deal of ceremony as they 
enter and leave. Servants flit hither and thither with messages, halls 
and courts are passed, some of which perhaps contain cattle, and a 
period of waiting is required before the reception room and the &?- 
gums* are reached; and occasionally, during or after the interview, 
a present is offered the caller as a token of respect. But generally 
there is less delay and less formality. 
Almost always, however, each visitor 
receives the best seat which can be fur- 
nished her — whether that be a European 
chair, a kursi, or a charpai. Sometimes 
only the ladies of the house are present ; 
sometimes a neighbor or two, or even a 
whole room full of friends, make their 
appearance. Occasionally the hostess 
and her companions appear in their 
finest silks and are weighed down with 
costly jewels ; but sometimes they ap- 
pear almost in a state of nudity. 

Conversation often begins with the 
most trivial subjects. The new Miss 
Sahiba is generally put through some 
such a catechism as this: "Are your 
parents living ? Have you brothers and 
sisters? Are they married? Are you 
married ? Why did your parents neglect 
to marry you? Did nobody ever ask 
you to be his wife ? Will you ever be 
married ? Why don't you wear rings 

in your ears and nose? Why did you come to this country? What 
salary do you get ? The Mem-Sahiba's catechism resembles this very 
much, but includes also the question, How many sons have you? 
never the question, How many daughters? 

When such inquiries are ended, it often takes a good while for the 
narrow-minded women to recover from the wonder produced by some 
of the answers which they receive. Gradually, however, progress is 
made, religious topics introduced, a part of the Bible read, bhaja?is 

* Native ladies of a high rank. 
12 




MARY ANNA. 



178 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

sung and the hearers directed to Jesus as their Saviour. Often, too, 
regular lessons are given, and zenana scholars, through repeated visits, 
eventually brought up to the point of reading the Scriptures for them- 
selves. 

One disadvantage of zenana visitation is that male relatives some- 
times make their appearance, either to scoff or encourage, and when 
this happens many of the women scatter in different directions ; 
although not always. Another disadvantage is that only the more 
cultured and experienced class of laborers can be employed in this 
work. High-caste native ladies have an aristocratic feeling and will 
not be satisfied with any but what they consider the very best. Still 
another disadvantage is that no house can be visited very frequently. 
Five or six zenana visits a day are about all that a lady worker or her 
companion can overtake ; and, if they have forty or fifty houses on 
their list, no one of them can get much of their attention. And then 
audiences in houses of high-caste people are usually quite small, much 
smaller than can be had in a girls' school. 

On the other hand there is close personal contact in zenana work, 
and instruction can be brought home very directly to the heart. A 
mature class of persons, too, can be reached in this way and women 
can be taught who would otherwise remain entirely ignorant of the 
gospel, to say nothing of the opportunity thus given to continue and 
complete work which has been begun in the schools or started by a 
medical practitioner. 

Direct results of a spiritual character have not yet appeared to any 
great extent. Few have been brought in this way to make a public 
profession of their faith in Christ, but as many, perhaps, as could be 
expected when we consider the tremendous difficulties which lie in the 
way of such an act. Private confession of faith, however, is not rare ; 
and certainly much has been done by zenana workers to dispel igno- 
rance and superstition, and lessen the hold which idolatry has upon a 
Hindu home. 

But zenana visitation has a broader sense than that which is gener- 
ally attached to it. It may apply to work in the houses of the common 
people, who constitute a large majority of the population. Less cere- 
mony is required in reaching this class than the more aristocratic, and 
less time needs to be spent by a visitor in secular instruction. Besides, 
larger audiences can be readily secured. Almost as easy is it for a 
lady missionary to collect a company of women in the court of a work- 



MEDICAL MISSIONARY WORK 179 

ingman's house, to listen to her message, as it is for a missionary of 
the other sex to gather a company of men at a street corner for a 
similar purpose. And probably this is the more useful and effective 
branch of zenana work. There may be more noise and eclat in the 
conversion of a begum, or a veiled Muhammad an lady, than in the 
conversion of the wife of a carpenter or a cooly ; but whether it in- 
volves larger and more blessed consequences is a question, and certainly 
it is not likely to occur so often. 

Medical missionary work has become an important branch of Chris- 
tian labor among the heathen. In September, 1892, it was reported 
by the Medical Missionary Record of New York that 359 fully quali- 
fied foreign physicians, of whom 74 were women, were then engaged 
in such work in various parts of the world — 126 in China, 76 in India, 
46 in Africa and in in other regions — also that 173 of these physi- 
cians had gone out from the United States and 169 from Great Britain. 
The American Board alone, from its origin down to Jan. 1, 1895, na ^ 
sent out 89 medical missionaries, of whom 55 were not ordained. The 
"Statistical Tables of Missions in India," prepared in 1890, report 97 
foreign and Eurasian and 168 native Christian medical workers of both 
sexes in that country, as well as 166 hospitals and dispensaries; while 
in the Punjab alone there were 34 foreign and Eurasian and 35 native 
medical workers, and 34 hospitals and dispensaries. Of late years, 
moreover, influences have been at work specially tending to increase 
the number of missionaries and Christian helpers engaged in medical 
work among the women of that land ; and chief among these influences, 
no doubt, have been the interest taken by Lady Dufferin and her suc- 
cessors in the provision of suitable medical treatment for upper-class 
(pardah) women and the scheme of help which (since the year 1885) 
they have carried on with this end in view.* 

As has already been remarked,")" every missionary is required to 
dabble in medicine. But the well-trained physician goes into the 
business more fully and systematically than others. A dispensary is 
established either in his own house or at a convenient point, where he 
sees patients at stated hours, inquires into their maladies and supplies 
remedies. Perhaps, too, he has a hospital near at hand into which the 
more serious cases are admitted for regular treatment. A.Bible worker 
also talks to the people while they wait for medical examination at the 
dispensary, and either he or his employer daily visits the hospital for 

*See p. 72. -j- See pp. 145, 146. 



180 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



religious conversation and prayer with its inmates. Besides this the 
medical man, or woman, is often called abroad to see sick people in 
their homes, where attention may be paid to spiritual as well as physical 
disease. And more than this : at fit seasons the physician generally 
travels around among the towns and villages of his District carrying 
the double blessings of temporal and eternal healing to multitudes of 
people. 

That such work is of a highly beneficent and humanizing char- 
acter — that there is great need of scientific medical advice in a land 
where quacks are almost as numerous as fakirs* — that the call for lady 
doctors coming to us from millions of women, who by inexorable 

custom are shut off from the sur- 
gical ministrations of men, is 
loud and heart-rending — and 
that for Christian communities 
themselves, and especially for the 
foreign missionary circle, so far 
as it is located at a distance 
from trained physicians, the 
medical missionary is almost a 
necessity— are facts which have 
often been presented to people 
of Christian countries, and which 
no one would be inclined to 
question. 

But some of the very objec- 
tions that have been made to 
educational work as an evangelistic agency have also been made to 
medical work having the same end in view. It is said to be largely 
secular in its character, to involve a great deal of expense, to form an 
unholy alliance with the government by drawing funds for its support 
from the public treasury, to be frequently dominated by the desire to 
make a good display of medical rather than religious results, to fear con- 
version and baptism as the direct consequence of its efforts lest such 
events might create serious trouble and even temporarily close a hos- 
pital or a dispensary, and to be generally barren of direct spiritual 
fruit. It has even been said that educational work is more hopeful 
than medical, because it deals solely with the young and by its regular, 

* See pp. 47, 48. 




A NATIVE WOMAN. 



ADVANTAGES OF MEDICAL MISSION WORK 181 

repeated and protracted opportunities has a betterchance to instruct 
the mind and reach the conscience. 

Much, however, can be said in favor of the latter method of spread- 
ing the gospel when conducted under wise regulations. Its expenses 
are largely borne by fees, Municipal or District grants, and voluntary 
contributions from outside sources. It almost always secures an audi- 
ence without difficulty. It obtains a great variety of hearers — persons 
of all ages, classes and conditions — Hindus, Muhammadans and 
Sikhs — Brahmans, Khatriyas, Sayyids and Chuhras — men and women. 
It tends to break up distinctions of caste. It reaches people when the 
heart is made tender by affliction and is susceptible of religious im- 
pressions. It comes enforced by practical kindness and undoubted 
human sympathy. It has no superior as a pioneer agency in entering 
new fields, and sometimes succeeds in starting and establishing mission 
work where all other methods completely fail. It furnishes the sesame 
which opens the door of many a zenana that is closed to ordinary Bible 
teachers. It claims the example of our Lord Jesus Christ and his 
apostles, who not only preached the gospel to the poor but healed the 
sick, cured the deaf and gave sight to the blind — a claim which is not 
altogether nullified by the fact that the great object of the New 
Testament miracles was to establish the Messiahship of Christ and 
confirm the communications of his inspired messengers. 

Not mentioning the ordinary ministrations of unprofessional laborers, 
our own special efforts in this department have been altogether in the 
line of zenana medical work. This has been due partly to the greater 
need of such efforts among women than among men, partly to the 
stimulus experienced from a general movement in India toward 
medical help for the female sex, and partly to the fact that Providence 
favored us more in getting laborers for this department than for 
medical work of a more general character. 

As early as September 17, 1880, Miss Euphie Gordon and Mrs. 
Johnson opened up a hospital for women in Gurdaspur which continued 
in operation for about five years, and did much good. This was closed 
only because the ladies in charge of it wished to go to America to se- 
cure a regular medical education and no one else appeared to take their 
places. 

When Dr. White arrived in the country and was located at Sialkot, 
still more extensive movements of a similar character began in that 
city. Dispensary work, to a certain extent, was required from the very 



182 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

beginning of the Doctor's residence there. A hospital was also started 
in Sialkot on January 12, 1888, and a building erected for its use which 
was formally opened December 30, 1889, and completed in the spring 
of 1 89 1. At Pasrur, a Tahsil town nineteen miles distant from Sial- 
kot, a branch dispensary was established November, 1890, and placed 
in charge of a European assistant. A class of students was also formed 
at the principal station to whom instruction was given in medical 
science. And every year tours have been made in various directions 
so as to reach as far as possible the people of the towns and villages of 
the District. As an indication of the amount of work done it may be 
noted that, during 1891, 24,366 patients were treated at the dispen- 
saries and 6^ at the hospital ; while 465 surgical operations were per- 
formed, 15 of which were classed as major. Thirty villages were also 
visited and 1275 calls made upon patients in their homes. 

When Dr. Johnson reached India, after receiving a thorough course 
of medical training in the United States, she was located in the Jhe- 
lum Mission District, which included Bhera. This was in March, 
1890. Dispensaries were soon opened up at both Jhelum and Bhera; 
and, though the buildings erected for their use were swept away by the 
floods of July 20, 1893, the work of dispensing medicine did not cease. 
Since then, too, a new dispensary has been built at Jhelum, while visits 
to zenana patients and medical tours through various parts of the sur- 
rounding country have been as common as in Sialkot. A few sufferers 
have also been treated as indoor patients at Jhelum and soon, it is 
hoped, a fully equipped hospital will be opened. Dr. Johnson's state- 
ments of the amount of work done from year to year resemble very 
closely those of Dr. White. In her report for the year 1893 she says, 
"At our Jhelum Dispensary we have treated 7061 new and 3710 old 
patients, making a total of 10,771, while Miss Morgan, our European 
assistant at Bhera, treated 3941 patients, making a grand total of 
14,712 patients for the year." 

When Dr. White left for America in the early part of 1894 her work 
was left in charge of Mrs. Fretwell and the native assistants, but in 
March Dr. Johnson was also directed to make periodical visits to the 
hospital at Sialkot. Now it is in charge of a new missionary, Mary 
A. Platter, M. D. 

In spiritual efforts the usual methods are employed in both fields. 
Bible reading and exhortation at the dispensaries and hospitals, re- 
ligious conversation in the zenanas, printed passages of Scripture dis- 



HE SUITS OF MEDICAL MISSION WORK 



183 



tfibuted as tickets or tracts, and prayer for a blessing wherever prac- 
ticable : these are all employed to draw patients to the great Healer of 
souls. 

As for results, two baptisms occurred among the patients at Gurdaspar 
hospital and one notable conversion was reported at the beginning 
of the work in Sialkot, that of a veiled Muhammadan lady; while 
several instances have been given of persons upon whom it is thought 
a deep religious impression was made. Bat the most remarkable result 
of all, perhaps, is that wider diffusion of Scripture knowledge among 
an exceedingly ignorant, yet important class, through which we hope 
in due season to reap an abundant harvest. 




THE LIGHTHOUSE. 




BUFFALOES BATHING IN A VILLAGE POND. 

{From a Punjabi Drawing!) 



CHAPTER XVIII 




EVANGELISTIC WORK— IV 

Through^Literature — Itineration — Congregational Services — Efforts of the Common 
People — Moral and Spiritual Character — Testimony Bearing. 

LTHOUGH the use of literature for evangelistic purposes 
is generally connected with some other method of circu- 
lating the gospel, its character is so distinct as to justify 
separate mention. Nor has it been an unimportant 
arm of the service. Bibles, tracts, treatises, books, newspapers, cards 
— in Urdu and Punjabi— all forms of publication have been used 
as opportunity offered. In every school the Word of God is 
found as a text book ; and at every religious service, whether in 
church, bazar, or zenana, a portion of the same Book is read as one of 
the means of grace. Cards containing Scripture texts are given out at 
the hospitals and monthly tracts distributed gratis among people who 
can read. Books are sold at a cheap rate, wherever a purchaser can 
be found, and religious newspapers are loaned to inquirers. In sev- 
eral of our stations, moreover, this work has been specially strength- 
ened and concentrated by the establishment of a bookshop and the 
employment of a colporteur. Such has been the case at Jhelum, Guj- 
ranwala, Gurdaspur and, to some extent also, at Sialkot and Pathankot. 
These shops contain reading-rooms and become the fountains of a cer- 
(184) 



LITERATURE AND ITINERATION 185 

tain amount of literary stimulus and religious life. Words are often 
read or heard there, as well as elsewhere, which, we are well assured, 
have had their appropriate effect in dispelling superstition and con- 
verting the soul. 

All the literature thus circulated does not of course come from our 
own press or our own pens. Indeed the great bulk of it, as we have 
seen (p. 92), is obtained from neighboring missionary sources. 

But our own workers nevertheless have done something in this line. 
In the early eighties we had a lithographic press, managed by the Pub- 
lication Committee of the Presbytery, on which were printed several 
books ; and among them was one at least, of 48 pages, addressed to non- 
Christians, entitled "Brief Evidences of Christianity" — an English 
treatise translated from the original of Dr. Alden by Dr. Martin. But 
the management of a press without continual employment was found 
to be expensive and unsatisfactory. Hence it was abandoned ; and 
ever since our literary productions have been printed elsewhere — some- 
times at Mission expense and sometimes not. Of evangelistic publica- 
tions thus issued, one of 138 pages by the writer may be mentioned, 
called "The Saviour's Claim " — the translation of a book by the late 
Rev. R. H. Pollock, D. D. But the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das has been by 
far our most prolific author. Up to April, 1894, he had published ten 
different books and had written at least eleven different series of let- 
ters, besides many single communications for newspapers, chiefly the 
Nur Afshan. The books contained an aggregate of 1252 pages and 
6000 copies, and some of the series of letters extended over a period of 
three months. Another book of 150 pages was also ready for publica- 
tion. Many of these treatises are controversial, or apologetic, in their 
character, and hence have an evangelistic aim. 

Itineration designates a certain method, or rather application of 
methods, which has been peculiarly characteristic of our own mission- 
ary efforts — so much so that we may be called pre-eminently " an itin- 
erating Mission." 

It implies, of course, movement from point to point and is opposed 
to that policy which would confine work chiefly to a few centers. It 
carries Christian effort not only to cities, but also as far as possible to 
the towns and villages of the outlying district and seeks to reach peo- 
ple of every class, far and near. 

Three varieties of this kind of evangelism may be mentioned, corre- 
sponding respectively to three different kinds of temporary homes used 



186 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

during the work of itineration — namely, tents, public houses and mis- 
sion buildings. The first of these varieties was more universally exhib- 
ited in former days than at present, but has always been necessarily 
confined to the coolest part of the year ; that is, to the five months be- 
ginning October 15th and ending March 15th. Indeed, seldom is the 
season for tenting even that long. The other two varieties are of later 
growth — the third last of all — and, while they can be utilized at all 
seasons of the year, they become more common when, on account of 
the weather, tenting is impossible, and especially during the dry, hot 
months of spring and early summer. 

Itinerating with tents has generally been considered the most 
romantic, interesting and attractive feature — the very flower indeed — 
of missionary life. 

For some days, or even weeks, preparation must be made. Tents 
must be purchased, or overhauled and repaired ; camels must be hired, 
either by private arrangement or through the intervention of a govern- 
ment officer ; camel boxes — great wooden bags or panniers made with, 
or without, different compartments — must be obtained ; wagons, horses, 
harness, saddles, provisions, clothing, tent furniture and all other nec- 
essary articles must be got ready ; servants and Christian helpers must 
be notified ; and often vexatious delays occur, even after the day of 
departure has been set. The camel at best is not a very amiable ani- 
mal, and when he is made to kneel down and take on his load, his 
grunting and growling and awkward attempts to rise and resist the 
process, furnish an impressive and sometimes an amusing entertain- 
ment for strangers. 

When all is ready and the caravan begins to move in a body it pre- 
sents a curious spectacle. The Sahib and his family in a two-wheeled 
cart or covered spring-wagon, the Miss Sahibas on ponies or in a turn- 
turn, the native Christian helpers, mounted as best they can be or not 
mounted at all, the servants on foot, and the camels with their irregu- 
lar and motley loads — tent poles, tent coverings, boxes, bundles, 
trunks, bags, tables, chairs, carpets, chests of drawers and charpais be- 
ing all jumbled together without regard to symmetry or anything else 
but the need of a balance — form a cavalcade whose appearance upon 
an American highway would attract a crowd of observers. 

For some time the journey, forsooth, lies over a good road and is 
destitute of remarkable incident ; but when bypaths, streams, villages 
or ravines are reached the case is likely to be different. Frequently 



ITINERA TING EXPERIENCES 



187 



the road is so rough that walking is preferred to riding in a wagon. 
Sometimes a wheel breaks and compels the occupants of a turn-turn to 
dismount. Sometimes a camel gets frightened, or stuck in the mud, 
or loses his balance in ascending an embankment, and sad havoc is 
made of the load which he carries. Occasionally a horse, or a wheeled 
conveyance, sinks into a quicksand when crossing a river and only 
with the greatest difficulty can be extricated. Sometimes a rider is 
thrown from his pony, or his cart upsets, and he gets a sprained ankle, 
or meets with even a worse disaster. Sometimes a dust storm or a 
shower of rain appears and drives 
everybody to seek the nearest and 
best possible shelter. 

And, as the pilgrims jog along, in- 
teresting sights greet their vision : — 
first, the almost continuous stream of 
travel leading in the opposite direc- 
tion ; people of every faith and caste 
and style of dress, or undress, on foot ; 
babies carried astride the shoulders of 
men or the sides of women ; ekkas 
overflowing with passengers and, like 
a sleigh, warning everybody of their 
approach by jingling bells; great carts 
heavily laden with finely broken straw 
{bhusd) or some other farm product; 
strings of cattle, asses, mules, ponies 
or camels bearing their burdens of 
grain or other freight ; men and women 
astride of donkeys, mules or horses ; 

a chance bhangiwala, palanquin, or English conveyance ; and now and 
then a bridal procession with its curtained dott> its noisy music and 
its indispensable marriage presents. Green fields, creaking well-wheels, 
singing birds, mud villages, half-brick towns, extensive plains, decep- 
tive mirages, distant, snow-covered mountain ranges, flocks of geese, 
ducks and other water fowl in mid-air, and occasionally jackals, deer 
or other wild animals, also form features of the passing panorama, or 
give it a perpetual background. 

When the missionaries' destination is reached an encampment is 
formed in the midst of a crowd of gaping natives. This is done by 




BHANGIWALA. 



188 LIFE AND WORK I FT INDIA 

pitching their tents on public ground and as near the village as may 
be. In India almost every town has a common at one side which can 
be used for this purpose. 

Five tents, at least, are necessary to make a comfortable and reason- 
ably complete missionary encampment — one for the Sahib and his 
family, one for the young ladies, one for the native Christian workers, 
one for the servants and one for preaching services, called a sliamiana. 
The first of these contains a central enclosure perhaps twelve feet in 
.width by eighteen or twenty-four feet in length, with its end frontward, 
which is curtained off transversely into two apartments — one back 
used for sleeping purposes, and the other forward (half as large), which 
combines sitting-room, dining-room and study all in one; while over 
the whole is a two-fold canvas roof sloping to each side. Extending 
across the rear is also a rectangular or semicircular bathroom, and 
across the front a covered veranda of similar size and shape which, by 
being enclosed, may be utilized to increase the size of the sitting-room. 
Over the earthen floor of the whole tent is spread a common Punjabi 
cotton carpet, called a dari, and at one end of the sitting-room is 
placed a small stove whose pipe extends through the canvas of the 
tent ; while camp tables, chairs, stools, trunks, beds, washstands, 
writing-desks and other necessary articles, occupy their appropriate 
places — mayhap a good deal crowded. 

The young ladies' tent is of somewhat similar character, but gener- 
ally smaller ; while the tents for natives are still less elaborate and 
costly. The shamiana is a square tent with a flat top and upright sides. 
Its ground floor is covered either with a cotton carpet, or rough matting, 
and on this the audience sits — only the leaders of a meeting being expect- 
ed to occupy stools. But the shamiana is often omitted from an itiner- 
ating outfit, and in that case services must be held in one of the other 
tents or in the open air outside — unless, indeed, there is a village 
schoolhouse or church in the neighborhood, or somebody offers a pri- 
vate court for the purpose. 

Not far away from the tents may be seen the wheeled conveyances 
of the party ; while horses and camels (and cows, too, if there be any) 
are tethered, or tied, at a convenient distance. One or more camp 
fires also enliven the scene and are made useful for warming and cook- 
ing purposes. 

At night particularly the scene appears weird and picturesque — 
cooks preparing meals over their chulhas (little fireplaces, made of mud 



VILLAGE OFFICERS 



189 



or a few bricks), men warming themselves at the open fires, lamps 
swinging before the tents, watchmen pacing backward and forward, 
servants and helpers flitting hither and thither, horses blanketed, camels 
munching green fodder, or "put to bed" side by side with blankets 
thrown over the tops of their saddles, the stars shining overhead 
and perhaps the moon pouring down its pale light — one is re- 
minded more of the state than of the church militant. 

Every village of any size has at least two officers — a headman, called 
a lambardar* and a watchman, called a chaukidar. Application is 




BLUE HERONS. 



often made to the former for fuel, grass, horse-feed and certain kinds 
of provisions — such as eggs, milk, fowls, meat and perhaps rice, dal 
(lentils), turnips and onions ; and, when at all friendly, these he 
furnishes, if he can, through an order given to some of his people. 
Of course they are paid for. The chaukidar is also expected to see 
that no harm comes to the encampment from theft or assault, and 
sometimes a special night watchman is employed from the village as 
an additional security against damage. This throws the responsibility 

* Some towns are large enough to have several lambardars, one of whom ranks 
the others and is called an ala-lambardar. 



190 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

where it will do the most good, and paves the way for a quick and easy 
remedy when harm is done. 

Sometimes, however, no dependence is placed upon village officers 
for help during the work of itineration. This is especially the case 
when, because of the indifference or unfriendliness of the Deputy 
Commissioner, or for some other reason, the lambardars take no inter- 
est in their missionary visitors. Then servants either get supplies as 
best they can from the bazars, or the Christians of the place (if there 
be any), having been previously notified, see that abundant provision is 
made, at the proper time, for their friends. 

By common law camels and goats can, without being considered 
trespassers, browse on any shrubs or trees which may be found in their 
wanderings ; and their owners even cut down small branches of foliage 
to furnish them with food. Hence camels after a wearisome 
march are generally turned loose to get something to eat, and 
their long snake-like necks, winding among the branches of the trees 
or stretched up to an enormous height in an effort to reach tempting 
leaves, constitute one of the curious sights of an Indian encampment. 
Formerly, too, missionaries, who, like other Europeans, are allowed to 
carry firearms, supplied their own tables with meat by killing ducks, 
geese, partridges, quails, kunjes and even deer ; but the custom has 
almost died out, partly because they have less time to spare for the 
purpose, and partly because they find that such a practice prejudices 
the minds of the Hindus against their work ; for this class of religion- 
ists, theoretically at least, hate the destruction of animal life. Water 
also can be generally had from a village well without extra expense 
through the Muhammadan water-carrier {bihishti) who accompanies the 
missionaries in their itineration. 

But all the requisites of a long tour cannot be supplied in any of the 
ways which we have mentioned. Hence a messenger must be occa- 
sionally sent to the original point of departure for many articles, need 
of which becomes apparent from time to time. This messenger also 
acts as a mail carrier. 

Religious work usually begins as soon as a missionary party reaches 
its place of encampment, and becomes a little settled. Around the 
laborers, male and female, collect companies of men and women, com- 
ing chiefly perhaps to gratify curiosity or obtain medical aid, but ready 
also to listen to the message of him, or her, who brings glad tid- 
ings of spiritual good. And this state of things is likely to con- 



RELIGIOUS WORK ON A TOUR 191 

tinue all day — the audiences constantly making up their losses by de- 
parture from new arrivals. At two or three periods of the day, also, 
more formal services may be held in the preaching tent or some other 
suitable place. This is almost certain to be the case if Christians live 
in the neighborhood. 

But work is not confined to the encampment or to the people who 
visit the laborers in their temporary home. The gospel is carried as 
far as possible to every individual in the village. Preachers go to the 
bazars, and back streets, and low-caste quarters ; zenana workers visit 
the homes of the inhabitants ; and everywhere, in every manner, an 
effort is made to disseminate the truth and dispel superstition. 

Nor are other villages of the neighborhood forgotten. From two to 
four days are usually spent at each place of encampment, and, on days 
when there is no moving, the laborers divide into two or more parties 
and each party visits two or more villages, repeating in each village 
the efforts which have already been described. Thus a wide circle of 
evangelism is secured at every center which is occupied. 

But other work is also performed on their itinerating tours. The 
whole round of missionary duties as far as possible must be carried 
along with the party and fully discharged. Schools must he inspected ; 
native Christians must be examined ; new converts must be baptized ; 
communion services must be held ; homes for village workers and houses 
for village churches must be secured ; reports must be received or pre- 
pared ; accounts must be kept ; correspondence must not be neglected, 
and mothers must see to the instruction of their children. 

Nor are the experiences of the camp always lovely. Sometimes the sun 
at midday makes it too hot for people to remain in tents and drives 
them under the shade of an umbrageous tree. Occasionally rain pours 
down in such quantities that the tents and much of their contents are 
completely saturated, and it becomes impossible either to move the en- 
campment or to occupy it in comfort. Sometimes the wind and dust 
storms give a good deal of trouble. Now and then village officers are 
unfriendly and greatly obstruct our movements. Sometimes thieves 
enter the tents and carry away valuables. In this way one of our young 
ladies, in 1883, lost nearly a month's salary, besides articles of apparel, 
while another had her medicine chest rifled. Sometimes the night is made 
fearful by the howling of jackals, dogs and even wolves. Now and then 
the smells of a locality become unendurable. Sometimes mad dogs, or 
crazy fakirs, give great annoyance, especially to the ladies. Sometimes 



192 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

a camel dies from rain and cold, or a saddening accident happens to 
an employee — as was the case at Dinanagar in 1891, when one of the 
camel men, who was cutting limbs off a tree, fell to the ground and 
received fatal injuries. Often, too, the annoyance felt from a con- 
tinual stream of native visitors becomes painful. Said one who has 
now gone to her long rest, "It is not altogether the work which 
wears me out. When from morning to night, women and children — 
and men too — come, one company after another, crowding around the 
door, peeping through the chicks* or lifting them up, looking upon 
white people, their clothing and their manner of living, as a great 




JACKAL. 

tamasha,\ it can be borne a few days very well, but after a few months 
it becomes monotonous. It is true we can have them driven back from 
the tent, and often have to do so for a while ; but it would not do to 
drive them away altogether. We might as well stay at home if we did 
so." 

The second variety of itinerating work differs from that already de- 
scribed in the substitution of public houses for tents while on a tour. 
These public houses are chiefly dak (stage) bungalows, rest houses at- 
tached to native inns, and police bungalows. J The two former can 
be occupied at a fixed daily rent-rate, while the last can be had only 

* Curtains made of slit bamboos woven together with cord. 

f Show, entertaining sight. % See pp. 81, 82. 



ITINERATING IN BOATS 193 

through the courtesy of police officers — a courtesy, however, which is 
often extended to missionaries. Hindu dharmsalas — that is, lodging- 
places for pilgrim Hindus — have also sometimes, though rarely, been 
granted for the use of a Christian laborer. 

The third variety of itinerating work differs from the latter in the 
substitution of mission for public houses. These may be chapels, 
school buildings or small bungalows. Of late years such houses have 
been multiplied within our borders, and in the future many more will 
probably be erected. Either the second or the third variety, or both 
combined, must be adopted in seasons when, on account of the 
weather, itinerating with tents is impossible ; and, although at present 
less flexible than the first, it is probable that, on account of their greater 
cheapness, they (especially the last named) will gradually supersede 
tenting at all seasons as the work advances and more lodging places are 
established.* 

These varieties, moreover, involve less trouble than the first. They 
do not require such elaborate preparations and such a caravan of 
beasts, wagons or men. Just in proportion to the curtailment experi- 
enced in this respect, however, does the romance connected with itin- 
eration diminish, while some comforts connected with the first method 
must also be dispensed with. 

Nothing has been said of boats as a means of travel and shelter dur- 
ing evangelistic tours because they have heretofore been little used 
anywhere in India, except perhaps in Kashmir. But the time is com- 
ing when they will doubtless be utilized more than they are now. We 
have several Districts in our own Mission where they would answer a 
good purpose. Especially is this the case with Jhang. Jhang is trav- 
ersed by the Jhelum and the Chenab rivers ; and, as the country not 
watered by these streams is largely desert, most of the towns and the 
population are located on or near their banks and can be easily reached 
by boat. The day, therefore, may not be far distant when a mission- 
ary vessel will play as important a part there as the Ibis does on the 
Nile in Egypt. 

Itineration, with us, has proved to be an exceedingly fruitful means 
of disseminating truth and making converts to Christianity. This is 
due probably, under God, to the number and the character of the 
people who have been reached. Perhaps ten times as many different 
persons are in this way made to hear the gospel as could be brought 

* Indeed, tenting, even among the civil officers, is not as common as it once was. 
13 




(194) 



CONGREGATIONAL EVANGELISM 195 

to hear it with the same efforts in a large city, and especially in a 
central station which had been occupied by missionaries for years. 
And then the classes met with are not usually so rich, or proud, or 
caste-bound as city people are. Many of them are poor and humble ; 
many belong to the depressed tribes ; many are outcastes. 

Itineration has also grown to be an indispensable means of inspecting 
and edifying native Christians and native churches. So great, indeed, 
has this work become that evangelization proper has been reduced to 
a secondary and somewhat incidental place among the labors of a 
touring evangelist. But remarks on this aspect of the subject will be 
more appropriate in Chapters XX and XXIII. 

The services held in congregations, organized and unorganized, in- 
cluding, not only regular preaching on the Lord's day, but also Sab- 
bath schools, prayer meetings and the local mission work of pastors, 
elders and members, may be mentioned as another important factor in 
our evangelistic efforts, as well as in the edification of God's people- 
The preaching of a settled minister, or a "supply," is often attended 
by persons who are not Christians, and, where schools have been esta- 
blished, the number of such hearers has sometimes amounted to hun- 
dreds. The same thing may be said of Sabbath schools. Many of 
the scholars are unconverted — Hindus, Muhammadans, Sikhs and low 
caste people, both children and adults. Indeed, sometimes a nucleus 
of Christian pupils does not appear in such schools at all ; they are 
wholly missionary in their character. Occasionally also congregations 
employ special workers to labor among unconverted people under the 
direction of their ecclesiastical superiors. 

Even under past conditions the benefit of such influences, emanating 
constantly from each of our congregational centers, has been worthy 
of notice ; and when churches are more fully organized, become settled 
with well qualified pastors, secure missionary rights within well under- 
stood boundaries, obtain suitable and properly located church build- 
ings, are relieved from all hampering restrictions and are made to feel 
that the progress of Christianity in their neighborhood depends mainly 
on their efforts, we may expect not only that their liberality and piety 
will be increased, but that their evangelistic movements and evangelis- 
tic success will be multiplied many fold. 

But in our experience the initial work of making new converts has 
been accomplished more through the personal and private efforts of 
the common members of the church than through any other agency— 



196 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

more indeed, perhaps, than through all other agencies combined. As 
natives generally have more to do with this work than foreigners, so 
the common people, as a class, have more to do with it than native 
ministers and paid helpers. When a man finds the Saviour and em- 
braces Christianity, Andrew-like, he goes at once to his brother and 
makes known the fact and strives to get him to follow his example. 
Neighbors, relatives, friends, in his own and other villages, are thus 
reached by close contact and by the strongest personal influence which 
can be brought to bear upon them. And the leaven spreads from his 
converts to others, and from them to others, and so on until a wide 
circle is reached. Sometimes, before a final decision is made, scores 
of people are thus brought into a state of inquiry, and when the time 
for action comes all move in a body and ask to be baptized. This 
is especially the case with those who belong to the depressed classes. 

True the native worker, technically so-called, and the missionary 
have each their part to fulfill. The former follows up what has been 
accomplished by non-official inferiors and does all he can to give new 
inquirers a correct knowledge of the Christian religion ; while the 
latter inspects, instructs, exhorts, sifts and receives into the church 
those who make a credible profession of faith. There are many cases, 
indeed, in which new converts hear the first sound of the gospel from 
the lips of a native or a foreign minister ; but such, it may be confi- 
dently asserted, is not the general rule. Before his voice reaches 
them another and humbler agent has extended to them the blessed 
news of a Saviour. They have enjoyed the benefit of that gracious 
provision, "Let him that heareth say, Come." 

The value of a consistent character, pure motives and sincere love, in 
connection with all the methods of evangelization which we have 
named, ought not to be overlooked. Ignorant and educated heathen 
alike can appreciate the presence or the absence of these qualities. 
And what a powerful influence they exert ! Not many years ago an 
Arya lawyer of Amritsar was convinced of the truth of Christianity, it 
is said, by the condescending humility of a " Church " missionary, the 
Rev. H. E. Perkins. This missionary had formerly been a Commis- 
sioner in the civil service, and the lawyer had seen him enjoying the 
plenitude of power and honor which belong to that high office. Now 
he saw him sitting on a small carpet at a Hindu fair, distributing 
tracts, and speaking to the poor people about Christ. The contrast 
was so vivid as to lead to his conversion. He could not but feel that 



HIGH CHARACTER NEEDED BY EVANGELISTS 19? 

a religion which produced such results must be genuine. The man, 
who does not practice what he preaches, who shows that he is influ- 
enced in his work by selfish or worldly motives, who takes no heart 
interest in his hearers, who looks down upon them with contempt, 
may perchance be used as the instrument of God in saving souls ; but 
such is not likely to be the case. It is the sincere, self-sacrificing, 
hardworking, kindhearted, sympathetic, spiritually-minded minister, 
or lay worker, who, in India as well as elsewhere, is usually blest to the 
salvation of the lost. The people must feel that the preacher or 
teacher loves them and is seeking their highest good. 

Nay more, they sometimes require him to attest the truth by his 
own religious experience. A Muhammadan woman, who was disposed 
to cavil, once exacted this proof from one of our missionary ladies. 
Sitting close to her, and looking her steadfastly in the eye, she asked 
the latter about her personal trust in the Saviour and her personal hope 
of everlasting life — examining her in a way which surpassed the strict- 
ness of the Session by which she was admitted into the church. Such 
replies were received as stopped all cavilling on the inquirer's part, for 
she said, " I suppose it is all true," although she did add, " but I can- 
not understand it." Testimony-bearing, when it comes from honest 
lips, is certainly a powerful means of convincing and converting sin- 
ners : and, although it has been seldom used in its technical sense by 
our workers, as Methodists require, there is.no doubt that without its 
real exhibition in the conduct, manner and life of our laborers little 
good would have been accomplished. Blessed is the Christian worker 
who shows in his every movement that his " life is hid with Christ in 
God." He is likely to be a winner of souls. 





CHAPTER XIX 

EVANGELISTIC WORK— V 

Through Forms and Ceremonies — Apologies — Controversy — Worldly Influences — 
Asceticism and Fakirism. 

NLY a step forward leads us to observe that we place 
less dependence upon forms and ceremonies in our evan- 
gelistic work than upon the simple preaching of the 
gospel. Earnest, extemporaneous prayer, heartily sung 
bhajans, the reading of God's word, plain statements of divine 
truth, warm exhortations to repent and accept Christ — these, in 
ever-varying phase, constitute the main staple of our missionary ser- 
vices. Our great aim is to make people acquainted with their lost and 
undone condition by nature and with their only way of escape from 
impending wrath. The introduction of a ritual into bazar preaching, 
or itinerating efforts, would seem to us as useless as it would be ridicu- 
lous. Such a course might make good Roman Catholics, or Church 
formalists, but, in our opinion, would only hinder the work of heart 
conversion. It is the kernel, not the husk of Christianity which we are 
seeking most to produce. 

Nor do we find that the heathen are specially attracted by mere forms. 
They have enough of these in connection with their own faith. If they 
make a change of religion at all they are more likely to pass clear over 
to spiritual Christianity than to do anything else. This no doubt is the 
reason why Roman Catholics succeed better when they " missionate " 
among Protestant converts than among Hindus. Idolatry and Popery 
are too much alike. 

Nor have we depended much upon controversy, or even apologetics, 
for the conversion of souls. True, the evidences of Christianity are 
often taught, especially in schools, and sometimes form the necessary 
antecedent of real faith ; and, where people's minds are filled with 
superstitious notions and wrong religious principles, and even cham- 
(198) 



AID FROM REMNANTS OF TRUTH IN HEATHENISM 199 

pions of error are found ready to uphold it with tongue and pen, con- 
troversy cannot be altogether avoided. It forces itself upon us in the 
caviling of opponents, in the honest doubts of inquirers and even in 
the clear definition of Bible doctrine. Every phase of truth has its 
corresponding phase of error, and a refutation of the latter will some- 
times bring out into bolder relief the correctness and the beauty of the 
former. Besides, there is a sense in which men must be emptied of 
false principles before they are prepared to receive those that are true. 

But no religion is entirely destitute of correct principles, and no 
adherents of a false faith are so completely filled with error as to reject 
every vestige of truth. By emphasizing whatever good remains, its 
importance will be more fully appreciated by those who hold it, and 
hope may be entertained that it will quietly dislodge some of the follies 
with which it has been unnaturally associated. And then, such rem- 
nants of a primitive religion may be utilized as the seed of something 
better — the sfock on which may be grafted the teachings of a higher 
revelation. But even if not, great confidence may be placed in the 
self-evidencing and illuminating power of inspired, heaven-taught 
truth. As natural darkness is most easily displaced by the introduc- 
tion of light, so the simple, eternal verities of God's gracious Word 
have been found the best means of dispelling spiritual darkness. One 
ray of gospel fact will put to flight a whole host of armed doubts and 
entrenched idolatries. Once get a hearer clearly under the beams of 
the Sun of Righteousness and little difficulty will be experienced in 
dealing with his pantheistic or superstitious errors ; nor will the ques- 
tion of Christ's divinity or God's trinity trouble him long. Gordian 
knots are then untied " without hands." Everything adapts itself to 
the new situation. Old things pass away. 

Public oral debate, moreover, in India, as well as elsewhere, depends 
so much on the character of the persons engaged in it and the cir- 
cumstances by which it is surrounded that, except under rare conditions, 
it is not safe to rest the truth on its issues. This was illustrated in May 
and June, 1893, by a celebrated debate between some Christians and 
Muhammadans in Amritsar, in which, even according to the judgment 
of our brethren, the victory of the former was a matter of doubt, and 
in consequence of which houses even as far away as Sialkot were closed 
to the admission of zenana workers. Readiness of wit, aggressive and 
persuasive eloquence, happy repartees, bold assumptions, plausible 
sophistries, or the cheers of a sympathetic audience, may easily turn 



Zabttr 19.* 

A Befort-verseJ f^After verse Choi'US. 



Quich 




Chorus. — Asman ba-yan | karde Khud- [ a de kam | sare 
Karde han | Rabb di wadi- ( a- | L 

1. Bin karde | rahnde din- ] an nala [ gallon 
Eat bakhshdi j rat nun dan- | a- | i. 

2. Na hai zu- | ban na a- | waz snnl ] jandi 
Tar zam- J in wicha ] 15- | L 

3. Sari zar I m!n dean | kandean | tori 
Apni | gal bhi, pahunch* | a- | i. 

4. Tambu ban- ] ay 8, Rabb | ne suraj de ] layi 
Uhnan wich j rakbl unchh- ] a- | I. 

.5. ,Lare de ] hangar mai- | dan wich jo | daurda 
Daurue de | nal khushi- | a- | i. 

6. JLsmaa de | kande thon | due kande | gbumda 
Sahnan nun | denda rosh- 1 na* j U 

* The Ninteenth Psalm in Oriental meter — a ohajan, 
(200) 



CONTROVERSY IN EVANGELISTIC WORK 20i 

the tide of conflict in popular estimation against those who are the 
advocates of truth and righteousness. Such champions as the late 
Rev. E. P. Swift, in such places as Gujranwala, may indeed gain some 
advantage in tournaments of this character, as once this minister did 
in debating with the distinguished Dayananda Saraswati shortly before 
the latter' s death. And sometimes Providence in a wonderful manner 
eventually overrules a temporary defeat to the advancement of His 
cause. This was true even in the case of the debate at Amritsar to 
which reference has just been made. In the flush of supposed victory 
Mirza Gulam Ahmed, of Kadian, the Goliath of Islam, was bold enough 
and impudent enough to predict the death of his opponent, Judge 
Abdulla Athim, within fifteen months from that date ; but, in spite of 
his age and ill health and the efforts made by Muhammadans, through 
the use of a poisonous cobra, and otherwise, to insure the fulfillment of 
this prophecy, the latter outlived the period allotted him and, through 
his preservation, became the occasion, if not the cause, of many con- 
versions. But such results are not always to be expected. In most 
cases it is undoubtedly better to avoid public debate altogether, or, if it 
must be engaged in, to have it carried on through the printed page. * 

No doubt a time of greater controversy is before us. Modern 
heathenism will not die any more easily than ancient heathenism did. 
Its struggles, too, will certainly become more violent as the end ap- 
proaches. It will then have to be dealt with as the circumstances re- 
quire. But Julian the Apostate's day is still in the future; and until 
it comes we may hope that Christianity will continue to be advanced 
in India more successfully by a dogmatic and irenic, rather than a 
polemic style of preaching. Even apologetics will continue to hold a 
subordinate place, as it has heretofore done with us. 

It seems almost superfluous to say that worldly influences have not 
been used by us to obtain converts or secure their steadfastness in their 
Christian profession. Yet the charge that we did so has been made 
against us, as well as against other Missions, by unfriendly critics and 
superficial observers. And there are some facts, too, which give the 
color of truth to this charge. New converts from the higher classes must 
often have a living provided for them, for the simple reason that they 
are cast out penniless from their former homes and, unless they obtain 
a living or means of livelihood through us, they must starve — a result 
which we would not of course allow. And even among low-caste 
* See remarks on bazar preaching, pp. 157, 158, 227, 228. 



202 Life akd work m ikdta 

converts, who, on account of their undisturbed home relations, ars 
more independent pecuniarily, it has sometimes been thought best to 
select and employ one or more influential men in each neighborhood 
to assist in the care and the instruction of the people there ; and 
the hope of being so employed has perhaps operated in certain cases 
as a stimulus to early and, it may be also, hasty profession. As 
one characteristic of our policy also is to educate those who profess 
Christianity so far at least that they can read and write, and to choose 
bright youths for further instruction in advanced schools, so that they 
may be fitted for teaching or preaching, the prospect of such advant- 
ages may have had some effect in leading men to embrace Christianity. 
Besides, it was doubtless felt by many poor people that the change 
from an outcaste condition to that of brotherhood in religion with the 
ruling race, was a distinct rise in civil and social standing ; and this 
also may have had an attractive power. 

Such influences, however, have not been used designedly for this 
purpose but, on the contrary, every effort has been made to divert at- 
tention from them and to reduce them to the lowest possible limit 
which was consistent with other obligations. Promises of money, sup- 
port, employment or land were never made to any on condition that 
they become Christians, and, when such subjects were mentioned by 
inquirers, higher and purer motives were faithfully set before them. 
They were given to understand that true Christianity was spiritual in 
its nature and, while including much earthly good, looked above and 
beyond such temporal benefits to those blessings which are heavenly 
and eternal and unspeakably more important in their character. So 
anxious, indeed, have we been to avoid even the appearance of bribery 
in our evangelistic work that possibly we have gone too far in the op- 
posite direction and have refrained from giving that amount of tem- 
poral assistance to the struggling Christian community which may be 
necessary, not only as a means of their defense against proselyting 
neighbors, but also as a means of securing their speedy advancement 
towards the goal of a comfortable living, high civilization and eccle- 
siastical maturity. 

Some applicants for admission to the church, however, manifest 
wonderful ignorance of the real nature of the Christian religion and 
exhibit motives for embracing it of such a singular, sordid and amus- 
ing character that readers of this book will doubtless be interested in 
two or three specimens. 



WORLDLY AND AMUSING APPLICANTS FOR BAPTISM 203 

Once a man frcm Pasrur came to me and wanted baptism pet ke 
waste, as he said — that is, for his stomach's sake. He had had a hard 
time getting along as a Muhammadan and thought that he could suc- 
ceed better in making a living if he were a Christian. Of course he 
expected the missionaries to give him employment, and money too. 
This is a common motive with Mussalman inquirers — one, moreover, 
with which they are familiar in the propagation of their own religion — 
but it is not often professed so honestly and so innocently. 

Another man came to Mr. Lytle and wished baptism, stating that his 
relatives had treated him badly and he wished to disgrace them as much 
as possible. He could think of no more effectual way of bringing dis- 
honor upon their name than by himself becoming a despised and hated 
Isai (Christian). Had his self-sacrificing spirit arisen from love instead 
of revenge it might have been touching. As it was, it provoked a 
smile. 

Another man, a Muhammadan, well educated and of good address, 
applied to Dr. McKee in 1885 for admission to the church, but at the 
close of his conversation stated that there was one indispensable con- 
dition of his becoming a Christian — he must be given an English or 
an American wi fe ! 

One is reminded by these incidents of what Augustine says of the 
people of his day. " How many," he complains, "seek Jesus only that 
he may benefit them in earthly things ! One man has a lawsuit, so he 
seeks the intercession of the clergy. Another is oppressed by his 
superior, so he takes refuge in the church ; and still another that he may 
secure the wife of his choice. The church is full of such persons. 
Seldom is Jesus sought for Jesus' sake." Yet this is a vast exaggera- 
tion as far as our own case is concerned. What Augustine supposed to 
be general in his own time represents only exceptions with us. 

Another method of evangelization, practiced by some and advocated 
by others, which has not been adopted by us, demands more than a 
passing notice.* In its most extreme form it is caUzd fa for ism, but it 
admits of different varieties according to the amount of austerity 
and self-sacrifice which they respectively exhibit — the common element 
being a greater degree of these characteristics than missionaries and 
native Christian workers at present generally exhibit. 

*For the simple reason that the propriety of its adoption has often been a burn- 
ing question in mission fields and has not by any means been settled to the satisfac- 
tion of all Christians, either at home or abroad. 



204 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



In the India of to-day there are at least three distinct modes of liv- 
ing — the official Anglo-Indian, the Eurasian and the Native. The 
first is adopted by civil and military officers of European origin and 
by all foreigners and Eurasians who can afford it. While appropriating 
to itself anything desirable that is peculiar to the East it seeks also to 
retain as far as possible all the comforts and advantages of high Occi- 
dental civilization. The second is adopted not only by Eurasians gen- 
erally but by poor whites and aspiring Christian natives. It is not 

of course so expensive or luxu- 
rious as the former and em- 
braces more articles and cus- 
toms of purely Indian origin. 
The third is that adopted by 
the natives generally. 

Each of these styles, how- 
ever, comprehends a large num- 
ber of gradations, correspond- 
ing to differences of taste, rank, 
wealth and economy. As the 
Viceroy's table and equipage 
are superior to that of an Assis- 
tant Commissioner or an army 
Lieutenant, although both are 
Anglo-Indians, so are a native 
Rajah's house and clothing in- 
comparably superior to those 
of a coolie, although both are natives; while between the extremes 
given, in either case, there are many rungs to the social ladder. 

Separate, too, from all of these is the manner in which a fakir lives. 
The fakir is a sacred man, a religious devotee. His life is consecrated 
to the pursuit of "piety " and the advancement of his own religion. 
He may be a Hindu, a Mussalman, a Sikh, a. Buddhist, or an adherent 
of some other faith. He may belong to a secret fraternity of his own 
order, or he may be an independent worker. He has taken on him- 
self the vows of celibacy, poverty and perhaps obedience. He wanders 
about from point to point and has no home except the " religious 
house " to which he is attached. He scorns work and has no means 
of livelihood except begging. His clothing, whatever he has, is of a 
peculiar cut and color and betokens, not only his profession, but also 




PIG-STICKING 
IN INDIA. 



CHRISTIAN WORKERS—THEIR MODES OF LIVING 205 

the particular sect of fakirs with which he is connected. His hair is long, 
curly, matted or covered with dirt. His body from head to foot, is 
perhaps besprinkled with ashes. Sometimes he practices great austeri- 
ties — fasting, self-torture, long pilgrimages and difficult tasks. Often 
he is a bad man — a liar, a thief, a confidence man, a rake or a mur- 
derer — and almost always he is an impudent fellow. The people fear 
and sometimes honor him — and hence feed him ; although they often 
see through his trickery and despise him. But on the whole he is no 
doubt one of the chief supporters and propagators of the religion to 
which he is attached. Romanath Chowdry goes so far as to call the 
ascetics of India " the captain-generals of Hinduism." 

Now, advocates of the Christian faith in India exhibit almost all these 
modes of living, while engaged in disseminating the truth. Most 
Protestant foreign missionaries adopt a humble variety of the first 
method named. Some who have smaller salaries drift downward very 
closely to the Eurasian style. Members of the Oxford Brotherhood at 
Calcutta and the Cambridge Mission at Delhi cling to the Anglo-In- 
dian mode, but live in common and, like fakirs, remain unmarried. 
Roman Catholic missionaries combine the Eurasian method with the 
celibacy and the other vows of their monastic orders. Native minis- 
ters and other laborers usually exhibit the ordinary native styles of 
dress and housekeeping, although these of course vary in character ac- 
cording to their monthly pay. Salvation Army people of European 
origin also attempted at the outset to live altogether as natives do. and 
some of them even went so far as to become fakirs ; but later, for 
health's sake, many of their practices in this matter had to be aban- 
doned. Christian natives have also sometimes adopted the life of a 
fakir and wandered about among the people preaching the gospel, 
depending upon the liberality of their hearers for food, drink and 
clothing. 

Within a few years strenuous efforts have been made by some good 
people to secure a greater degree of self-sacrifice on the part of those 
who labor for Christ in heathen lands, and especially in India. The 
Eurasian style of living, or the via media as they call it, has been 
recommended by one class to all foreign missionaries. Such men as 
Sir William Hunter and the Hon. W. S. Caine have praised highly the 
celibacy and the fancied austerities of the Oxford and Cambridge 
Brotherhoods, or have lauded to the skies such fatal exposure to leprosy 
as was exhibited by Father Damien. Salvation Army methods have 



206 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

been advocated by others and even fakirism has been urged, not only 
upon natives, but also upon European laborers. 

In favor of the new modus operandi, and especially fakirism, the fol- 
lowing arguments have been adduced : 

First, that, unlike the stipend system, it accords with the genius of 
the people of India and is practiced everywhere in that country by 
other religions. It is said that there are nearly three millions of fakirs 
there ; and that one in every ten of the India people is supported by 
the other nine on account of his devotion to their faith. And " many 
of the fakirs," as the Lahore Church Gazette said, "are so respected, 
and others so much dreaded, that the rajah himself will rise upon his 
elephant to salute them, while the common folk intensely covet their 
blessing, and fear nothing so much as their curse and their dis- 
pleasure."* 

Again, it is said to accord with Biblical teaching, where we are re- 
quired to " endure hardness as good soldiers of Jesus Christ" and to 
" be all things to all men " that we " might by all means save some." 

Biblical, and especially New Testament, examples are also cited to 
support it — the Seventy Disciples, for instance, the Twelve Apostles and 
our Lord Himself. The Seventy particularly are thought to have been 
a representative body, typical of the Church and her work in all ages ; 
and as they went out on their mission, like fakirs, without scrip or 
purse, so should we. 

Subsequent Christian example is also adduced in its favor, such as 
that of Paul and Barnabas in the apostolic church, Jerome, Bernard, 
Boniface and the thousands who followed them as Roman Catholic 
friars and monks in subsequent centuries, the Waldenses, the Lollards 
and the early reformers, Burns and the China Inland missionaries, the 
Bishop Taylor force in Africa, Carey, Bowen, Protestant Brotherhoods 
and native Christian fakirs in India — all of whom, with many others, 
have adopted more or less the self-sacrificing methods which we are 
considering, and have been ready to "spend and be spent " in Christ's 
service. Moody himself has been called a fakir. 

Again, this method, even in its milder phases, is said to be more 
economical than the prevailing policy, while under every form it pro- 
vides sufficient support for Christian laborers. The Eurasian has 
fewer wants than the Anglo-Indian, the native than the Eurasian, and 
the fakir than the ordinary Hindu. If a wanderer, he does not require 
* Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. XI, p. 283. 



FAKIRISM IN MISSIONS ADVOCATED 207 

a house or house furniture. If unmarried, he has no family to care for. 
The demand upon Mission Boards for funds is thus greatly lessened, 
or stopped altogether. A willing people feed and clothe the sacred 
messenger. The Lord provides for His own. 

Further, the policy advocated would, it is thought, secure more and 
better laborers. As less money would be required for workers already 
in the field, a surplus would be left in the mission treasuries at home 
and this could be used in getting other laborers. And a similar ex- 
pansion of force would be gained among natives in the field also, where 
missionaries take the lead in self-denial. Moreover the ministry se- 
cured by such a call would, they say, be more humble, loving, earnest 
and devoted than officers of the present missionary army, foreign and 
native, are. A sifting test would operate from the very beginning. 

Moreover, the effect of the work on the spirit of those performing it 
would, it is said, be better than under the present policy. As wants 
would be diminished, so would cares also. Anxiety about food and 
clothing, and the support of new converts or native workers, and the 
worthiness of applicants for baptism, would be reduced to the smallest 
possible limit. The money element would be eliminated from many 
missionary problems. Laborers would learn to trust the Lord more 
than "uncertain riches." Their minds would be set free for full con- 
secration to spiritual duties. Racial heartburnings and jealousies 
would also disappear. All would be placed on a common level. The, 
gap between foreign and native workers would be bridged over. 

With some, too, the newly advocated methods would give Christian 
workers a better reputation. The charge that they are mere hirelings 
would vanish away. They would take their places in the ranks of 
honored ascetics, and, like other fakirs, would be regarded as holy 
men. 

And more important still, it is claimed that they would be more 
successful in winning converts to Christianity. Poverty, say the ad- 
vocates of this policy, is one of the essential elements of spiritual suc- 
cess. God loves to honor the good soldier who endures hardship 
for Christ's sake. The hearts of men are easily inclined, not only 
towards such a worker himself, but also towards the Master whom he 
serves. And especially is this thought to be the case in India. Two 
hundred such laborers, it is supposed, would do more than twice as 
many others to make heathenism tremble. 

And then this policy would check admission of unworthy people 



208 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

into the church. None would be drawn towards a profession of faith 
by worldly motives. As even officers of the church and evangelists 
received little or no stipulated pay, much less could pecuniary rewards 
of any kind be expected by new converts. The final decision of an 
inquiring soul would be determined by other and better considera- 
tions. 

Some again contend for this method because it is the only one which 
can become a permanent fixture in the Eastern church. The stipend- 
iary system, they say, being of Western origin, is an exotic and must 
necessarily die when the hot-house of Western influences is removed. 

Some again contend for this policy for the very opposite reason — 
namely, that it is temporary in its character, intended only to meet a 
great emergency and provided simply to advance as fast as possible the 
present work of Christianizing India. They admit that it cannot and 
ought not to be made a permanent characteristic of the fully developed 
church. But the need of laborers now, they say, is too great, and the 
urgency of the hour too imperative, to wait on the slower methods of 
highly organized evangelism. 

Finally, it is urged that this method will have a good reflex influence 
on the home churches, making them more liberal and devoted to the 
cause of missions. Men would give more bountifully knowing that 
their funds are not wasted, and their hearts would be drawn more 
powerfully towards laborers who were in such a marked degree bearing 
the heat and burden of the day. 

Our own Mission, however, like most others, refuses to encourage a 
new departure in the direction indicated and clings tenaciously to its 
old and established method. While glad to see Christ preached by all 
classes and in all ways, it does not wish formally to incorporate fakir- 
ism, or any of its partial imitations into its settled policy, but rather to 
check its spread. And with good reason, too, the writer thinks : 

For first, the new method accords not so much with the genius of 
Oriental people as with the genius of their religions — religions which 
we know to be false. The root idea of fakirism is self-atonement, 
legality, dependence upon austere rites for salvation. By abstinence 
from marriage, wealth and ordinary comforts, the devotee is supposed 
to acquire merit for himself. He becomes a "holy" man; he is 
thought to have communication with the unseen world. And this 
gives him power over ordinary people. He works upon their super- 
stitions and fears. In other words the whole foundation of his in- 



FA KIR ISM IN MISSIONS ATTACKED 209 

fluence is wrong. It is not desirable for us to become identified even 
in appearance with such theories. 

Again, Christians can never hope to rival successfully Hindu or 
Muhammadan fakirs. The depth of poverty, wretchedness, filth and 
suffering to which some of the latter descend cannot be voluntarily 
reached by those who believe in Christ. True Christianity has an 
elevating rather than a degrading tendency. The devotees of false 
faiths will always surpass Christians in asceticism, and in conflicts on 
this line will always be victorious. Contention with them is futile. 

This arises from the fact that fakirism, in its essence, is contrary to 




-sir—- - 
HINDU BARBER. 



the spirit and the teachings of the New Testament ; and the fact that it is 
so furnishes another reason why we should avoid it. The basis of sal- 
vation, as offered in the gospel, is not self-inflicted torture, but Christ's 
righteousness. Holiness is to be sought, not through "bodily exer- 
cises," but through faith, love and new obedience — through the pres- 
ence and power of the Holy Spirit. Hence there is no necessary 
antagonism between genuine religion and the comforts of this world. 
True, it generally comes first to the poor, but it does not tend to keep 
them poor. Godliness is even said to be profitable for " the life that now 
is/' as well as for " that which is to come." Hence superior excel- 
14 



210 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

lence is not attributed to celibacy, bodily mortification, or the vow of 
poverty. Marriage is declared to be " honorable in all." The bishop 
himself" must be the husband of one wife." 

Nor are the Biblical examples given favorable to the adoption of 
fakirism as a mode of evangelistic effort. Paul was by no means a 
fakir. He supported himself by his own labor and positively refused 
to take gifts from those among whom he preached. If he accepted 
help from any one it was from distant believers. Nor was Jesus an 
ascetic. He "came eating and drinking" — not in the style of the 
Essenes, or even John the Baptist. His support, too, was obtained 
chiefly from loving companions, who ministered to him of their sub- 
stance. And as for the rules given The Seventy, whose mission was 
temporary, we can hardly adopt the view that they were intended to 
apply literally to all subsequent missionaries and Christian laborers, 
since they were so soon discarded even by the great apostle of the 
Gentiles himself. 

Fakirism, too, is non-Protestant in its character — that is, contrary 
to the general spirit, teachings and practice of Protestant Christians, 
although exceptional cases may be cited. 

And while in early ages it was adopted by Roman Catholics, and 
even now is made an important part of their working system, history 
shows that it came to them from a heathen source. The Oriental belief 
that matter is essentially evil was its parent, and the non-Christian idea 
that penance is meritorious has ever given it continued life and vigor. 

Nor can we find any encouragement in the history of monasticism 
for its adoption by Protestants of the present day. " For the simple, 
divine way of salvation," says Dr. Schaff, "monasticism substituted 
an arbitrary, eccentric, ostentatious and pretentious sanctity. It dark- 
ened the all-sufficient merits of Christ by the glitter of the over-meri- 
torious work of man. It measured virtue by the quantity of outward 
exercises, instead of the quality of the inward disposition, and dissem- 
inated self-righteousness and an anxious, legal and mechanical religion. 
It favored the idolatrous veneration of Mary and the saints, the wor- 
ship of images and relics, and all sorts of superstition and pious 
frauds. It lowered the standard of general morality in proportion as it 
set itself above it and claimed a corresponding higher merit ; and it 
exerted in general a demoralizing influence upon the people." * 

And besides this, almost everything that is good in the policy pro- 
*Schaff's "History of the Christian Church," Vol. Ill, pp. 177, 178. 




(211) 



212 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

pounded has already been incorporated into our present system. If, 
as is supposed, a large amount of voluntary help would thus be secured 
in propagating the gospel, it may be replied that such help is had now. 
We have just seen how much the unpaid common people have to do in 
making converts among their neighbors. And many honorary — that is, 
self-supporting — missionaries, too, are operating in various parts of 
India.* Such devices also as are employed by the Salvation Army to 
obtain audiences are not unknown in well-established Missions. A 
member of the London Missionary Society says, u We carry a flag, use 
a fiddle and give short sparkling addresses in the bazars." And as for 
unmarried workers, especially women, they have for over forty years 
formed a part of our regular forces in the field. True, we do not en- 
courage a wandering, beggarly life, nor do we extort vows of celibacy 
from single ladies, nor consider that they have forsaken their calling 
when they marry missionaries, or that they have forsaken the path of 
duty when they marry Christians in any sphere of life. In other words 
we have adopted the excellencies, but not the evils, of monasticism. 

And we think at any rate that missionaries, both married and un- 
married, already make as many sacrifices as they ought to be expected 
to make. Some of the trials through which they pass are greater than 
those which befall Romanist friars or even Hindu fakirs — greater partly 
because of the character of their previous life and training. And what 
a contrast now exists between the comforts of the average minister at 
home and those of the average laborer in heathen lands ! Why then 
should the latter be required to descend to a still lower plane of com- 
parative hardship? 

Besides would it not be wronging his children to require him to 
adopt even the Eurasian mode of living? Eurasians and ''poor 
whites" cannot give their little ones that training, or that chance in 
life, which belong to the average European or American. Mission- 
aries reduced to their circumstances could not send their families to 
the hills for the sake of health, nor could they keep them in the United 
States to get a good education. Their offspring would be condemned 
to a lower status in every respect than that which the parents enjoy. 
The health, the intelligence, the morals, the religion, and the worldly 
prospects of the children would probably all suffer as the result. 

* It is said that fifty missionaries of the C. M. S., working in various parts of the 
world, draw no salary from the Society, and sixty of the China Inland Missionaries 
support themselves by their own means, 



FAKIRISM NOT AN IMPROVEMENT 213 

Nor would it be right to ask native laborers to descend to a lower 
plane than that which they now occupy, or to make sacrifices which, 
comparatively speaking, are greater than those which we make. When 
urged to do so they reply in the language of Babu Ram Chandra Bose,* 
"The master must lead, not only exhort, and if the few missionaries 
who stand up for asceticism cannot encourage it by example, as well as 
by precept, the less they talk of it the better." 

The contention, too, that this new policy would be likely to secure 
more or better laborers does not seem to rest on a very good founda- 
tion. At least it is probable that if adopted there would be a deterio- 
ration in the intelligence and the mental training of those who would 
present themselves for Christian service. And as for the spirit of de- 
votion, it is not probable that the worldly advantages now offered have 
much influence in drawing any one towards the foreign field ; and, 
though the wages offered a native may have something to do with his 
willingness to enter mission employ, it is hard to see how the diminu- 
tion of the salary given, or its entire abolition, would secure other oi 
more faithful men. Certainly the number of native workers would not 
be increased thereby, any more than the abolition of a missionary's 
salary would increase the number of foreign workers. 

Nor is a more ascetic mode of living likely to augment the happiness 
or improve the character of those who adopt it, but rather the con- 
trary. If married, their expenses and parental anxieties would be 
greater. They would always be struggling to make ends meet. They 
would perhaps become miserly and set a bad example of liberality be- 
fore the natives. If regular fakirs, they would have no settled home, 
no secret closet for devotion, no opportunity for study or self-improve- 
ment, and little chance of profitable association with godly men. The 
props to virtue which marriage, society, church organization and 
previous reputation furnish would be largely wanting. They would be 
peculiarly exposed to temptation. A wandering life naturally tends to 
the decay of spirituality and the loss of moral character. Great grace 
would be necessary to prevent a downward course. 

Nor would it be likely to enhance the reputation of a preacher. 
The hope of his being considered a kindhearted, generous " nourisher 
of the poor " would have to be abandoned. It would be hard for him 
to avoid even the charge of niggardliness. Sufficient support, more- 
over, when drawn from the common treasury of a Brotherhood, would 
* In " Hindu Heterodoxy," p. 187. 



214 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



invalidate his claims to voluntary poverty, or peculiar self-denial. 
The adoption of native costume, too, strikes the people as a kind of 
deception — a pretension to be what one is not — such apparent decep- 
tion as deeply distressed the Rev. W. C. Burns and led him to wish 
that he had never abandoned European clothing.* Nor is the reputa- 
tion of heathen fakirs so holy in the Bible sense of the word, as to in- 
crease that of Christians who follow their mode of life, but rather the 




HINDU WASHERMEN. 



reverse. The fact of celibacy, indeed, is a presumption against chas- 
tity in India, and many fakirs are actually known to be depraved, im- 
moral men. Even in the bazar a Christian fakir would be regarded 
with less favor than a resident laborer, while regularly organized 
churches would look upon him with suspicion if he came without 
proper credentials. 

Not likely, therefore, is it that the proposed new policy would be 

* " Memoir of the Rev. William C. Burns," p. 590. 



FAKIRISM NOT more SUCCESSFUL IJV PRACTICE 215 

more successful in winning souls to Christ than that which has been 
generally adopted by Protestant Missions. And in accordance with 
this judgment is its history, so far as it has been brought into prac- 
tice. Roman Catholics, after the labor and growth of 400 years, 
number only about 1,350,000 converts in India, while in less than 
half that time, Protestant converts have reached a total of 600,000 
or 700,000. During the five years between 1880 and 1885 Roman 
Catholics increased (so said) three and one-half per cent, annually; 
Protestants nine per cent, per annum. In 1889 the following was 
written, " Nine men have joined the Oxford Brotherhood in Calcutta 
during the nine years of its history, but only three of these remain 
to-day. Eight converts are said to have been made from Hinduism 
during this period and three of these have gone over to Rome." 
Even the Superior became a pervert to the Roman Catholic Church. 
Another writer says, " Mr. Bowen lived for many years on a pittance 
in the native quarters of Bombay. As a devoted missionary he has 
never been surpassed; but it is a striking fact that he did not succeed 
in making converts. Father O'Neil, in another part of India, sub- 
mitted himself with heroism to self-denial and hardships such as few 
Europeans would be physically equal to, but he scarcely baptized a 
single person." And similar to this is the testimony of the Rev. J. N. 
Forman in regard to his own experience while trying to live among 
the people as one of them. He says,* " It soon became clear that my 
motives were not appreciated. I was looked on as a low specimen of 
an Englishman, 'poor white trash.' I would not have objected to 
this, had it in any way put me in a position to do more good. But 
my influence was very perceptibly decreased. I seemed to get no 
hold on the people, high or low. I was hated by some, despised by 
others, disregarded utterly by more, and made the sport of small boys. 
At one point in the city, the children changed from hooting at me to 
horribly blaspheming Christ." Nor is the success of the Salvation 
Army so phenomenal as to offset such testimony and justify a different 
conclusion. As Sir Chas. Elliot says, "The mere reduction of the 

missionary's income would only condemn him to a life of 

squalid poverty, which would undermine his constitution without in 

* Makhsan-i-Masihi of April 15, 1890. Compare -with this also Dr. Morrison's 
experience in China. See Dr. Stoughton's "Religion in England — iSooto 1850," 
Vol. I, p. 254. 



216 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

any way increasing his usefulness or making him veneraole in the eyes 
of the people." 

Especially would asceticism in its extreme forms destroy the in- 
fluence and the example of a home. " There are many important ad- 
vantages," says the Methodist Times, " in the existence of one happy 
Christian home in a purely heathen, Indian town. It is an object les- 
son of Christianity which has more weight than hundreds of sermons. 
Many educated Hindus to-day watch, with a scarcely-to-be-regretted 
envy, the fellowship and sympathy which unite the English missionary 
and his wife. The missionary home is a powerful influence for the 
amelioration of the lot of Indian women and the regeneration of Indian 
society. On the lines of the Salvation Army this phase of missionary 
influence vanishes." 

Again, the methods of the ascetic school involve a great expenditure 
of life and health. That the irregular habits of a fakir tend to under- 
mine his constitution and shorten his career, even if he be a native, 
needs no great amount of proof. And especially is this the case with 
Europeans and Americans. Look at the early history of the Salvation 
Army — required, as its officers were, to live like the natives and subsist on 
a mere pittance. What a record of sickness, starvation, breakdowns and 
deaths — with all the loss of time and energy and working power 
which such a system involved! No wonder it was called ''simply 
murder in the plains of India," a " method of dying rather than a 
style of living," a "reckless waste of human lives and human zeal 
and energy ! " No wonder that even the Army itself was compelled 
to change its policy in some measure, abandon vegetarianism and al- 
low the use of sandals and sun hats ! Half its forces were swept away 
before a language could be learned or an enemy reached. And similar 
remarks might be made about unnecessary exposure to leprosy and 
smallpox in the discharge of missionary duties. The vow of a mis- 
sionary does not require him thus to destroy his working ability and 
diminish the length of his ministerial course, but rather the contrary. 
He is bound to make the most of himself in the sphere to which the 
Lord has called him. 

Besides, such a system in its extreme forms would hinder very much 
the development of liberality both in the native church and in the 
church at home. How can native Christians be taught to lay by in 
store on the first day of the week as the Lord has prospered them if 
the stipendiary system, as it is called, is to be abolished — if their 



FAKIRISM A HINDRANCE AND A DAMAGE TO MISSIONS 217 

ministry is to be sustained by alms, or haphazard instrumentalities? 
And must the Church in Christian lands be deprived to any extent of 
the spiritual benefit and the great joy which arises from the exercise 
of a grace that God has heretofore so largely blessed ? 

While then, we should welcome help from any source or class of 
people that promises usefulness, even from a Christian fakir, and while 
it is doubtless true that missionaries and upper-class native preachers 
are too much inclined to stand aloof from those who are socially be- 
neath them, and would have more power for good if, through the 
cultivation of a Christ-like spirit, they could condescend more fully 
to men of low estate, we cannot but think that the adoption of ascetic 
methods as a common policy would be a hindrance rather than a help 
to our evangelistic work. 





CHAPTER XX 




OBSTRUCTION AND PERSECUTION 

Physical Hindrances — Hindrances from the Government — From European Resi- 
dents — From Neighboring Missions and Missionaries — From Lack of Funds — 
From Imperfection of Laborers — From Different Views of Mission Policy — 
From False Religions — From Casie — Opposition to Our Getting Locations for 
Work — To Our Prosecution of Labor — To the Hearing of the Gospel — To Re- 
ligious Inquiry — To the Belief of the Truth — To Baptism and a Public Profes- 
sion — Persecution of Low-Caste Converts by High-Caste People and by Low- 
Caste Neighbors — Continued Persecution of Christians After their Baptism — 
Little Persecution unto Death — -Caste Giving Way Somewhat. 

F the providential hindrances to our evangelistic work 
which are essentially physical in their character — such as 
climate, sickness and bad roads — it is unnecessary to speak 
particularly here, as they are described at length in other 
places.* And the same thing may also be said of linguistic and edu- 
cational obstructions.")" All that need be remarked now on the sub- 
ject is that these obstacles to missionary labors are by no means trifling 
and that, taken as a whole, they prevent a large percentage of our 
Christian force from being brought into successful use. 

That hindrance, as well as help, comes from the government, too, 
has been noted elsewhere. J Non-Christian officers — and nominally 
Christian officers, too, — are sometimes unfriendly and join the ranks 
of our persecutors; § administrative measures are occasionally carried 
out in such a way as to oppress our people, or hinder their religious 
activity; and even laws have been enacted which dishonor the Chris- 

*See Chapters IV, V, VIII, XXIII and XXX, and pp. 185-189, etc. 
•j* See Chapter IX, and pp. 86-88, 140, 141. 

t See PP- 37-39- 

$ A striking instance of this was given at Bombay during the year 1894, in the 
unjust condemnation and imprisonment of foreign missionaries there for their ex- 
posure of the evils of the opium trade. See Note 3. p 415. 
(218) 



GODLESS EUROPEANS AND UNFRIENDLY CRITICISM 219 

tian name and throw discredit upon missionary efforts. It is hard for 
the natives of India to discriminate between the principles of our re- 
ligion and that practical exhibition of Christianity which is given in 
the British Rule. No wonder then that regulated vice, excise laws 
and a legalized opium traffic occasionally fill them with disgust and 
bring Christian workers into contempt. No wonder the zenana on 
this account is now and then closed to Bible readers. 

Similar obstruction also comes through the lives and principles of 
Europeans. Too many Anglo-Indians are irreligious, immoral and in- 
fidel. Too many anti-Christian books of Western origin find their 
way to India and are republished there. The rejection of Bible doc- 
trine, practically and theoretically, by those who are supposed to have 
tested it and to know all about it, goes far to counteract any influence 
which missionaries and native Christians may exert in its favor.* 

Unfriendly criticism by neighboring missionaries has also done 
something to diminish the power and the success of our evangelistic 
efforts. 

This criticism has referred chiefly to our work among low-caste peo- 
ple — the depressed classes. Some objected to them as proper persons 
upon which to expend our energies, called them " depraved poor," 
and doubted the possibility, or at least the probability, of truly chang- 
ing their character. In other words, they were supposed to be too low 
down to be reached effectually. It is better, these critics said, to 
work among the " well-born," the higher castes. Others admitted 
that such people might be Christianized, but claimed that it was bad 
policy to begin with them. They disliked the idea of now flooding 
the native church with a great mass of converts from the despised 
classes and thus at the very outset fixing its character as a lower- 
caste organization. It could never, they thought, have any stand- 
ing in the community ; nor under such conditions could high-born 
Hindus and Muhammadans be easily reached, if reached at all. 
Better, they said, commence with the natural and historic leaders of 
society, and work downward, rather than upward, among the castes. 
Others objected to the qualifications for baptism which we required 
of these poor people. They wanted, besides a credible profession 
of faith in Jesus as their Saviour, more intellectual and educational 
attainments exhibited by those who received this ordinance than we 
were disposed in all cases to insist upon. They demanded of candi- 
*See pp. 37, 124, 125. 



220 LIFE AND WORK TN INDIA 

dates for baptism at least the ability to repeat the Lord's Prayer, 
the Apostles' Creed and the Ten Commandments. 

On most of our laborers these criticisms had little effect except 
perhaps that of a stimulating character. They felt that notwithstand- 
ing such strictures our policy was right, and hence pressed forward 
in maintaining it without the least shadow of turning — glad to find 
their course, so far as its main features are concerned, vindicated at 
last by its general adoption throughout the Punjab. In all cases, 
however, this was not the result ; and it is easy to see how the first 
two criticisms so far as they were considered just, would operate in 
diminishing the zeal and the activity of our workers among low- 
caste people. Neither a foreign nor a native minister, affected by 
such sentiments, could labor with much heart for the evangelization 
of Megs and Chuhras. And as a natural consequence, too, his 
harvest of converts from these classes would be small. The demand 
for such intellectual attainments on the threshold of baptism as 
those which have been named would also materially limit the number 
of persons actually baptized and received into the church. 

Encroachment by other Missions, moreover, had the same ultimate 
effect of diminishing additions to our fold. This was due, partly to 
the loss of some of our laborers and people and their union with our 
rivals, partly to the necessity for self-defense and the withdrawal for 
this purpose of a detachment of our forces from evangelistic work, and 
partly to that loss of moral and spiritual power which is almost neces- 
sarily produced by a course of conflict. 

The limitation of our funds and of our ability to hire laborers has 
also had the natural effect of limiting the amount of our work and the 
number of conversions arising therefrom. Sometimes in the midst of 
our greatest need and finest prospects a curtailment of our estimates has 
been made by the home church which operated disastrously. During 
the time of our first conflict with the Roman Catholics, for instance, 
one of our superintendents was on this account compelled to dismiss 
seven helpers at once — a loss which was sorely felt. 

To all these obstructions must be added the imperfection of our 
evangelistic laborers. That the best have been "compassed with 
infirmity" and have failed to reach that degree of usefulness which 
should have been attained, is no more than they themselves would 
admit ; while a few have shown more than ordinary weakness. 

Some, too, have had their time and strength so largely absorbed in 



DOUBTFUL VIEWS OF MISSIONARY POLICY 221 

other necessary labors that it was physically impossible for them to 
take much part in lengthening the cords of our missionary encampment. 
Indeed, the edification of baptized believers and their development as 
an organized church have grown to be a work of such great propor- 
tions as to threaten very seriously the possibility of aggressive warfare.* 

Some again have entertained doubtful views of missionary policy. 
To several of these views reference has already been made in speaking 
of the criticism to which we have been subjected by our neighbors. 
But there are others also. For instance, some appear to think that the 
possession of a bad motive by applicants for baptism must be taken for 
granted until the opposite is proved by incontestable evidence, rather 
than the more charitable view that, while great care should be taken 
in the baptism of professed converts (remembering that a credible pro- 
fession is one which constrains us to believe in its sincerity), until a 
bad motive becomes manifest, the possession of a good motive by those 
who profess their faith in Christ should be assumed as a fact. And 
again, some express the conviction that they ought not to baptize any 
more applicants for baptism than they are able afterwards to train prop- 
erly or care for — in other words, keep Christ's lambs out of the fold 
until that fold is enlarged and put in order, so that every member of 
the flock can be systematically fed and nicely housed — as if these lambs 
would not do better in the church than in the world any how, however 
imperfect the former might be, or as if the Lord would make a mistake 
in regenerating people too fast and would not, in His providence and 
by His grace, make abundant provision for the spiritual nourishment 
and the highest welfare of all His new-born children. 

And then a few, perhaps, temporarily lost faith in the spirituality 
and the real efficiency of their own or their brethren's missionary labor. 
In other words they became discouraged. This feeling led them to 
find fault and tear down rather than build up. Instead of advancing 
with the enthusiasm which characterizes those who have full confidence 
in the work of the Lord as done through their instrumentality, its 
possessors were disposed to retire as far as possible from active partici- 
pation in the movements of the field. 

Such defects of character, reputation, strength, theory and zeal, 
helped, of course, to lessen the amount of effective work done by our 
laborers, as well as the number of persons on the roll of their professed 
converts. 

*See pp. 195, 272 and 273. 



222 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

The position taken by our church in regard to the baptism of polyga- 
mists, opium-eaters and wine-drinkers should also be mentioned here, 
because it stood somewhat in the way of rapid progress. Not that we 
had many cases to deal with, for the contrary is the fact, but that the 

stand which we took against polygamy and intemperance made our 
church door narrower than that of some other missionary bodies, and 
kept away a few applicants for baptism who might elsewhere have been 
received. 

Among American Missions generally total abstinence is the rule and 
strict temperance a sine qua non of church membership ; but the same 
cannot be said of all Missions from other parts of the Christian world. 
A stream in foreign lands cannot be expected to rise any higher than 
the source at home from which it flows. 

As for polygamous marriages, no missionary in India, I suppose, would 
tolerate them for a single moment in the case of those who, previous 
to their assumption, had been members of the church. Diverse views, 
however, are held regarding the baptism of polygamists when this 
improper relation has been entered into before conversion. Some 
would baptize them if they otherwise made a credible profession 
of their faith in Christ, and still allow them to continue in a state 
of polygamy until a change has been effected by death, but at the 
same time exclude them from the Lord's Supper. Some would bap- 
tize them and admit them to full communion, but consider them 
ineligible to official position in the church, basing their views partly 
on the fear (certainty, they affirm) that divorced, unmarried women 
will enter upon an immoral life, and partly on their interpretation of 
i Tim. 3 : 2, which requires the bishop but not a private member 
(they say) to be the husband of only one wife. Some would require 
a polygamist to divorce all his wives except one before receiving 
the ordinance of baptism — giving him, however, the privilege of 
choosing from among them which one he will retain. Others, with 
whom the writer agrees, would require him to divorce all his wives 
except the first, who alone in God's eyes is his properly wedded com- 
panion, but expect him still to support those who are discarded. 

The subject having been brought to the attention of our General As- 
sembly in 1880, action was taken by that body forbidding the reception 
of polygamists into the church ; and in accordance with this decision 
we are required to act. Hence, although a difference of opinion in 
regard to the matter is still entertained by brethren in the field, our 



HINDRANCES FROM PRE-MILLENARIANISM 223 

practical course in reference to it has helped to lessen the increase of 
our church membership; but not very much. 

And what about pre-millenarianism ? How has the adoption of this 
doctrine affected your laborers ? Has it made them more, or less, 
active — more, or less, successful? "It must be admitted," says one, 
" that, as a general rule, faith is the measure of success in religious work, 
as it is also in religious life. It must also be admitted that pre-mil- 
lennial views of Christ's coming, as generally held, are unfavorable to 
strong faith in the present success of the gospel. The man who be- 
lieves that the church is becoming worse and worse and will soon be 
involved in complete ruin, who has no confidence in the means of grace 
as now administered for the extensive conversion of our fallen race, 
who preaches the word merely, or chiefly, from a sense of duty, who 
considers himself simply a ' witness ' testifying to a lost and ruined 
world, who looks to the personal reign of Christ as that which alone 
can cure existing evils and bring men to obey him, cannot as a rule 
preach the truth with much expectation that it will be accepted by 
large numbers of men." What now, our friends inquire, is the practi- 
cal result in your own field ? 

Fortunately, or unfortunately, we can give no reply whatever to this 
question — for the simple reason that none of our foreign or native 
laborers, as far as known, have adopted the view mentioned. All are 
either opposed to it or are inclined to leave it as an unsettled point. 
In some neighboring Missions, indeed, pre-millennialists hold a promi- 
nent place and seem to be earnest workers ; but regarding even their 
success the writer can make no statements which would either confirm 
or disprove any theory on the subject. 

I am happy to say, however, that among ourselves no one has yet 
arisen who believes in the future probation of those who die impenitent 
— a doctrine, which in the opinion of most evangelical workers is 
almost certain to cut the sinews of missionary effort both at home and 
abroad. Our hindrances of theory and policy have not been so serious 
as this — although they have been real notwithstanding. 

But the greatest hindrance to our evangelistic efforts has come, as 
might be supposed, from false religions — from the pronounced enemies 
of our faith. 

And the characteristic presented by them which has been found 
most obstructive in its nature is no doubt caste. Caste is that system 
by which Hindus are divided into various hereditary classes and made 



224 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

subject to various regulations and customs, called caste rules. Origin- 
ally this division accorded somewhat with differences of race, occu- 
pation, and political, social or religious relationship; and these differ- 
ences are still largely perpetuated. But the sacred books of the Hin- 
dus also teach that this division is based upon a difference of creation 
and divine appointment — in other words, that the various castes are 
separate species, or orders, of the human race, just as elephants, dogs 
and cats are different species of animals. Caste rules relate chiefly to 
marriage, food, drink, professional occupation, religious privileges and 
funeral rites. They are very strict and precise in their nature, and their 
enforcement forms perhaps the most permanent and distinctive feature 
of Hindu life. And, as the effect of this, almost all other religions in 
India have also become involved in the meshes of caste and have be- 
come subject to some of its more important regulations.* 

The evils of caste from an evangelistic point of view are chiefly two : 
First, it threatens every person inclined to become a Christian with 
losses and sufferings of the most grievous character ; and secondly, it 
segregates the new convert and puts him in a position where he can 
have little or no influence over his former friends. Even the first of 
these evils is calculated to hinder our work very much, because it not 
only deters many from the initial step of making honest inquiry into 
the truth of the Christian religion, but also prevents people from con- 
fessing Christ unless they have an extraordinary amount of moral and 
physical courage. But the second evil is still greater, because it cuts 
off so effectually what might be called the natural growth of the good 
work of winning souls. Not only is the ordeal of social, civil and 
religious ostracism with which the profession of Christ is connected, a 
severe trial to the individual convert himself, but (what is more to be 
regretted) it prevents him from securing the salvation of his kindred. 
The leaven is at once removed from the lump where it was primarily 
put, and hence can have no effect on its former surroundings. The 
production of a second convert among caste people is therefore just 
about as difficult as was that of the first. This makes the process of 
evangelization slow. Grain by grain the non-Christian mass must be 
transferred to the granary of the Lord. There can be little of what 
might be called a chain movement or cluster conversion. 

How different the result among people of no caste, from which class 
we draw most of our converts ! And how different even among Hindus 
*See Chapter XII and especially p. 116. 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO GETTING A LOCATION FOR WORK 225 



and Muhammadans when, as occasionally happens, the new convert is 
in such a position as to secure indifference to caste ! As an illustration 
take the case of a Muhammadan maulvie, living in the neighborhood 
of Pasrur, who was baptized in 1892 by the Rev. T. F. Cummings and 
mentioned in his report of the work of 1893. Of him Mr. Cummings 
says, "The faith of the maulvie, who was baptized two years ago, has 
been rewarded by the baptism of his wife and children. It was his 
wish at one time to give her the choice of being turned out of the 
house, or becoming a Christian, but Paul's counsel prevailed, and the 
happy result is a Christian home. Living as they do, in their home 
village, their faith has an excellent influence on their Hindu and Mu- 
hammadan neighbors." 

But, a'part from the hin- 
drances imposed by caste, great 
obstructions of a serious charac- 
ter have been presented to the 
spread of the gospel in India. 

First, ministers and preachers 
have been hindered both in 
getting a suitable location for 
their work and also in the prose- 
cution of the work itself. 

Occasionally laborers find it 
difficult to obtain a favorable 
position for even an hour's 
service or a day's encampment. wolf. 

They are compelled to move 

on to another bazar, or another village. But especially is it difficult for 
them to obtain places of residence and good sites for permanent insti- 
tutions — such as school houses, bookshops, churches and hospitals.* 
High rents are charged ; offensive conditions are imposed ; titles are 
beclouded; the haqq-i-shufa* is brought into use; sharp tricks are 
resorted to ; lawsuits are started ; water is denied the preachers ; owners 
refuse to rent or sell at all. And then, if building becomes necessary, 
efforts are made to hinder its progress or stop it altogether, even if 
physical force has to be resorted to. 

Only a few instances can be mentioned. 

A young Christian, named Robert Bruce, who had for several years 

* See p. 143. 
15 




226 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

owned a piece of land in Sialkot, undertook to erect a house upon 
it in the fall of 1883. Muhammadan neighbors interfered, drove 
the bricklayers from their work, insulted Robert on the street, tried to 
wrench his property from him by unjust claims, assaulted his female 
relatives, tore jewels from his niece's ears and arms, thereby lacerating 
her flesh, refused to return the stolen property and were only stopped 
in their obstructive course by an appeal to the Deputy Commissioner. 

About the same time the Christians of Sabzkot undertook to put up 
a house for preaching and school purposes at their own expense, and 
when its walls were nearly finished the zaildar — a high officer of the 
neighborhood * — compelled them to desist from their work. 

When Mr. (afterwards Rev.) Haqq's labors at Dinanagar were 
meeting with great success in 1882, his neighbors, becoming alarmed, 
urged his landlord to turn him out of the house in which he was liv- 
ing. Hearing of a building site near by, he undertook to purchase it. 
But Muhammadans beset the seller at once, saying, " You must not sell 
to a Christian ; if you do, he will build a church, a bell will ring, and 
everybody will turn Christian. Do not let them have a foothold and 
we will buy your site." So they collected money and bought it, and 
thus defeated our catechist's intentions. Subsequently Sardar Dingal 
Singh, a wealthy gentleman of Lahore and a warm friend of Chris- 
tians, presented him with a building lot in the neighborhood. The 
municipal authorities, however, refused him the usual permit to build 
until compelled to do so by their superiors. And when the erection 
of the house was begun, two Hindus set up a claim to the land, 
stopped the work, and took the case into court before a Muhammadan 
judge. But prayer was offered up to God by the Christians in behalf 
of our cause, and this judge, after much deliberation, gave a decision 
in favor of the defendant before hundreds of angry opposers. Appeal, 
however, was taken to an English Magistrate, who reversed the deci- 
sion of the lower court, after which appeal was again made by Aziz ul 
Haqq to the Commissioner of the Division, who at last confirmed him 
in his rights. 

When it was found necessary in 1889 to get more land for the 
Memorial Hospital, Sialkot, a high District officer suggested an effort 
to secure the adjoining lot from the owner, Sardar Jadjodh Singh, who 
resided in Benares ; and it was thought that he might give it gratis. 

* The zaildar is an executive officer, superior to the lambardar, and exercising 
authority over many villages — sometimes thirty or forty. 



CONTROVERSIAL OPPOSITION, AND INDIGNITIES 227 

But before our request reached him we found that he had already given 
it to the Arya Samaj. Evidently an Aryan, hearing of our proposed 
efforts, had anticipated us and circumvented our plans by a previous 
communication, sent probably by telegraph. 

In the prosecution of their labor, also, missionaries and native 
workers have often had to endure many indignities and great opposi- 
tion. 

To the controversial disturbances which frequently arise during bazar 
preaching, zenana work and evangelistic tours reference has already 
been made in various places.* Sometimes these become very annoying; 
sometimes they break up a meeting. Sometimes controversy is con- 
ducted by our opponents in a quieter and less offensive, but shrewder and 
more systematic manner — so ably indeed as to tax all the resources of our 
representative. Miss C. E. Wilson, for instance, met a Muhammadan in 
one of her zenanas, May 15, 1888, who had read the Bible through, pos- 
sessed Scott's commentary and a concordance, and seemed to be an hon- 
est inquirer, but was ready notwithstanding to bring forward many ob- 
jections to our holy religion, as well as arguments to support his own 
faith ; and the very impartiality and intelligence which he appeared to 
manifest only made it all the more difficult to deal with him and to 
neutralize the effect of his discourse upon others. 

But opposition often takes a more material and degraded form. 

Sometimes wood, water and fodder have been refused our workers 
by the local authorities of the place where they had encamped. f Once 
when some zenana workers were seated on a charpai by the side of 
which was a heap of straw, talking with a woman, who seemed much 
interested, a boy perhaps fifteen years old entered and coming towards 
them said, " Get off my charpai. Sit on that straw. Straw is good 
enough for Christians." Again, a young lady wrote, "In two or 
three of the villages which we visited the people were very hardened. 
They would not even give me a place to sit upon and would not per- 
mit me to open my Bible ; and when we got into our conveyance to 
go away they began giving us abuse" — a very mild term for the gali, 
or billingsgate, which native people generally disgorge upon such oc- 
casions. At another time a fakir, whether crazy or not is uncertain, 
seized a missionary's horse as she was driving it on her rounds in a 
tum-tum, and was only shaken off through the agility and bravery of 
her servant. On another occasion, when a lady and her Bible woman 

* See pp. 157-161, 176, 178. f See pp. 189, 190. 



228 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

were passing along the streets of Bhera, dust and stones were thrown 
after them, while a crowd of boys followed them with rude drums, 
making as much noise as they could. During the summer of 1889, 
not only was boisterous opposition preaching kept up close to one of 
our bazar stations in Sialkot, during the hour of our services, but in 
the early part of July hostility became so fierce that brickbats were 
thrown at our laborers and their turbans pulled off their heads, and 
notice had to be sent to the Deputy Commissioner. 

Hindrances to the hearing of the gospel are also as common as op- 
position to its proclamation. 

Sometimes these are of a trifling character but nevertheless effective. 

The entrance of a sahib — a male missionary — has been known to 
drive a whole roomful of women from the presence of their Chris- 
tian instructor. Hindus have sometimes kept their girls from a Chris- 
tian school because Muhammadans were present, and both these 
classes have often declined to patronize our schools because low-caste 
children were admitted, or because enough of distinction between 
their children and the others was not made in our school arrangements. 
It is sometimes hard, also, to get Hindus and Muhammadans to meet 
together for religious instruction upon the Sabbath, because with them 
this is a weekly holiday. 

Often, however, the hindrances have a deeper meaning. Hatred 
of the truth and fear of our success frequently prompt people to avoid 
the sound of the gospel, or to hinder others from hearing it. A Ro- 
man Catholic missionary has been known to pass without abashment 
into the midst of one of our audiences and quietly drive out all whom he 
claimed to be his own people. Husbands sometimes treat their wives 
in the same manner. "One day," says a zenana worker, " while we 
were reading the Bible in a water-carrier's house to his wife, a very 
beautiful woman who loved to listen, her black, ugly, pock-pitted, 
one-eyed husband came in and asked, ' What is the use in your read- 
ing to these cattle ? ' — that is, his wife and other women. Finding that 
we did not mind him, he got back into a corner and beckoned his 
wife away, leaving us to finish and depart without meeting her again." 
" At one place," says Miss Gordon, " we were refused a hearing alto- 
gether, and at another the people not only would not hear, but fol- 
lowed us and threw clods after us. However, a young woman in the 
crowd who had been a pupil in the Girls' Mission School at Gujran- 
wala, began eagerly to rehearse portions of the Bible and we became 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO INQUIRY AND CONVERSION 229 

much interested in her; but a man appeared and rudely drove her 
away." Amir Bibi's baptism in 1886 was the cause of the closing, to 
zenana laborers, of all Muhammadan houses in Gujranwala near where 
she lived, except two. Fear was entertained that other converts 
might be made. And a similar fear seems to have prompted the great 
Hindu revolt against mission work among women in Jhelum during 
the spring of 1884, when the native authorities of the place were 
ranged against us and our Hindu Girls' Schools were for a time en- 
tirely closed. Such also was the root of the Moslem opposition to 
Dr. Johnson's dispensary work in the same city six years afterward, 
when applications for medicine greatly fell off and on two days there 
were none at all. Although desirous of medical treatment and secular 
instruction for their wives and daughters, the people of that place 
hated to receive these favors in connection with Bible teaching. They 
dreaded the results. 

And what is true in ordinary cases is especially true in regard to 
persons who have become interested in the Christian religion and have 
attained the position of religious inquirers. Every effort is made to 
prevent them from advancing any further in their search after Bible 
truth. Their attention is turned to other things ; they are urged 
to be faithful to the religion of their fathers ; they are sent away 
from the neighborhood where Christians labor; they are detained 
from church services by main force ; their Christian literature is stolen 
from them and destroyed ; they are beaten, imprisoned at home, stu- 
pefied with poisonous drugs, and even threatened with death if they 
do not desist from what is considered religious folly. And, what per- 
haps is worse than all, lies are often told about us and our motives, 
and the truths of the Christian religion are taught them in a perverted 
form. 

No doubt, too, there is a mighty internal struggle in the case of 
many converts. It is hard for us to realize what a great revolution of 
thought and feeling must occur in their hearts. Philosophies, super- 
stitions, customs, caste rules, religious ideals, social relations, long- 
cherished hopes and fears must all undergo a radical change. A new 
Bible, a new ministry, a new brotherhood, a new way of salvation, a 
new theory of religious life, a new creed, a new system of morality, a 
new mode of worship, a new idea of birth, death, heaven and hell, a 
new God, must take the place of the old. As Dr. Dennis well says,* 
*In " Foreign Missions after a Century," p. 189. 



230 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



"Old friendships must be broken, family glory must be dimmed, long- 
cherished pride humbled, natural timidity must be conquered, social 
inertia must be overcome, irresolution must be cast aside, hereditary 
indisposition to change must be banished, personal interest must be 
sacrificed, worldly loss must be faced, alliance with priestly power must 
be forfeited, and a leap into the unknown and untried experiences of 
an absolutely new religion must be taken, and all upon the basis of 
what seems to be comparatively slender historical evidence, without 
the familiar eclat of public approval." And to these internal obstruc- 
tions must also be added the natural depravity of the human heart, its 
deep-seated hatred of holiness and its aversion to everything else that 
is distinctive in the Christian faith— besides the machinations of the 

Evil One, who always 
stands ready to do the 
part of a vigilant general 
for all opposing forces. 
Surely the internal diffi- 
culties in the way of the 
conversion of a heathen 
man are almost incal- 
culable. Only a miracle 
of grace can change his 
heart, revolutionize his 
intellect, and make him 
a true Christian. 

Great external ob- 
struction also meets him when he is ready for baptism — the recog- 
nized sign of a Christian profession. The trials to which he was 
previously subjected by unbelieving friends are now redoubled. If 
a high-caste school boy, he is generally compelled to seek baptism in 
a distant city where his relatives will not be likely to interfere with 
the performance of this rite. If under age, or alleged to be so, his 
case is probably taken by parents, or guardians, to a civil court and an 
order asked in favor of their custody of the boy. Detention of a child 
less than fourteen years of age is considered kidnapping. At eighteen, 
however, he is in all respects legally free from his natural custodians. 
Cases of persons between the ages of fourteen and eighteen are treated 
on their merits. If such a convert is able to judge and act for himself, 
he may be legally baptized and need not be restored to his parents, or 




LEOPARD. 



CASES OF PEkSECUTIOtf 23l 

guardians. All depends upon whether he acts freely and intelligently 
in receiving baptism and has the ability to earn a living for himself.* 
Should he be restored to his Hindu or Muhammadan friends, he can 
expect only the greatest indignities. He will be kept closely guarded, 
or be transported to a distant part of the country where he will be 
helpless ; and in almost all cases he will be subjected to personal vio- 
lence. He may be even poisoned and altogether put out of the way. 
If a Hindu, his head will be shaved and he will be compelled to par- 
take of a mixture of cow's dung and urine — a recognized means of 
ceremonial purification and restoration to the religion of his fore- 
fathers. And in the case of high-caste persons of any age, or of 
either sex, who succeed in running the initial gauntlet and entering 
the Christian fold, there is the almost inevitable loss of property, par- 
ents, husband or wife, children, friends and everything else which 
men hold dear. The new convert must begin life over again. 

Two cases may be mentioned — both Muhammadans and both 
women. One was a beautiful, married, pardah-nashin (or veil-wearing) 
lady, who gave every evidence of conversion at the Sialkot Dispensary 
in its early days. Strenuous efforts were made to prevent her baptism. 
When she fled from home for this purpose she was forcibly brought 
back again, taken away to another city, kept a prisoner among 
relatives and threatened with every kind of injury if she attempted to 
escape. And when she did escape and was enabled to join the com- 
pany of Christian friends, threats of a suit for the recovery of jewels 
which she had taken with her were made, marital claims were bran- 
dished over her head, plans for waylaying and kidnapping her were 
laid, and (worse than all) the wily arts of seduction were employed to 
destroy her character. 

The other case was that of Gulam Bibi, who was baptized by the 
name of Ruth at Jhelum, Nov. 3, 1890. As her friends disapproved 
of her course, she did not return to them after baptism, but went to 
live with Miss Given. Under the false plea that her father was sick, 
she was induced, however, to go to see him, and there her relatives 
abused her very much. Rescued by some Christians, she came back 
again to Miss Given, but was visited under various pretences at differ- 
ent times during the subsequent week by her former friends. Finally, 
when a chance occurred on one of these occasions, she was forcibly 

* See the decision given at Allahabad as told in an article in the Indian Evan- 
gelical Review, Vol. XVII, pp. 56-77. 



232 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

seized and carried off, but not without a fierce struggle in which Mrs. 
Scott, Miss Given and their servants took the girl's part. Miss Given 
wrote at the time, "Mrs. Scott received a scratch on her arm from 
which blood was flowing. I understood that the old man struck her 
with his stick. He raised his stick on me once, but one of the servants 
caught him. It is said that I was knocked down and that the women 
caught me by the throat, but I have no recollection of either. I felt 
neither pain nor fright. All I thought of was to free the poor girl. I 
know my shawl was torn off me twice. I heard continually ringing in 
my ears, f We will kill you, We will kill you,' but I paid no atten- 
tion." But all was of no avail. Poor Ruth was carried away, several 
men holding her hands and several her feet, while her screams were 
heartrending. Notice was given to the Chief of Police, however, and 
in less than two hours she was brought back again, but not till she had 
endured much suffering, being bruised and sore all over. A short 
time afterward, too, the principal offenders were sent to jail — some for 
three months each and one for four months. Ruth afterwards went to 
the Girls' School at Sialkot and is now the wife of Barkat Masih of the 
Gujranwala District. 

But upper-class people are not the only ones who suffer persecution 
at the time of baptism, or in prospect of it. Low-castes and outcastes 
suffer in the same way. 

Occasionally, it is true, members of the depressed classes are even 
encouraged to become Christians by their non-Christian friends and 
neighbors. At Saddowal in 1883, the ala-Iambardar, a Hindu, who 
was at one of our services, listened with great attention to all that was 
said ; and when the preacher (who was addressing especially candidates 
for baptism) made a brief pause in his discourse, he took occasion to 
break in himself with an exhortation for them to remain firm in the faith. 

But such experiences are rare. As a general thing both Hindus and 
Muhammadans dislike the upward aspirations of these poor people. 
The former are afraid that their Christianization will threaten the 
stability of the whole caste system. They think that if the sills are 
removed the entire structure will tumble to the ground. The latter 
would much rather see the Chuhras embracing Islam; while both 
Hindus and Muhammadans, contemplating the elevation of low-caste 
people to the rank of Christians, fear the loss of the service of a class 
upon which they have heretofore depended, especially in the work of 
agriculture. 



PERSECUTION OE LOW-CASTE PEOPLE 233 

Hence statements like the following have been common in describ- 
ing our evangelistic experience : " A number of inquirers were not 
baptized for fear of persecution, as they were threatened by their 
enemies, and could not at this time openly confess Christ ; " or this: 
" Moti's wife and children were among the number baptized. The 
wives of the other men became frightened and did not come out. The 
Hindu and Muhammadan villagers are very much opposed to these 
people becoming Christians ; " or again, " There were a few who ex- 
pected to be baptized this evening ; but, poor people ! they were 
threatened so by the zamindars (farmers) for whom they work that they 
felt that they could not come out now. The zamindars heard this 
afternoon that they expected to be baptized, and told them that if 
they were baptized they would not give them any work to do nor any- 
thing to eat. And, I suppose to make them believe that they would 
do it, they took some of their grain from them. It would seem to 
them very much like facing starvation to be baptized now." 

"At a village called Dargahiwala, five miles north of Qila," wrote 
the Rev. E. P. Swift in 1885, "great earnestness to embrace the 
Christian religion was felt among the low castes. The catechists 
visited the place several times, instructing them in regard to the plan 
of salvation. The whole Community sent a message to me to come 
and baptize them. Afterward when the headman of the village dis- 
covered that they had sent for a padri* he at once assembled the 
people and told them not to become Christians. He said the padri 
would make them eat frogs, pigs and lizards, and, if they persisted in 
becoming Christians, he would turn them out from the village and en- 
tirely deprive them of their houses and work. We were obliged to 
leave the place because the poor people had lost all courage for the 
time, and were afraid to come near us. This plainly shows what bitter 
hatred the Muhammadans have in their hearts against our Lord and 
Saviour Jesus Christ." 

And sometimes opposition to the baptism of members of the de- 
pressed classes is also received from their own caste (or no-caste) 
brethren. Often a near relative (wife, husband or mother) gives as 
much trouble to an inquirer, or a candidate for baptism, as a similar 
relative would do among the Hindus or the Muhammadans ; and 
sometimes the number of such opponents is overwhelming. 

When Piyara, a Meg, wanted to be baptized in Zafarwal, he was at 
* The common name for a Christian minister in India. 



234 L2FB AND WORK IN INDIA 

first forcibly kept by his friends from going to church for this purpose; 
but afterward he escaped and obtained the rite. 

When Cheddu of Naya Pind (a Meg also) was converted, he met 
with great opposition from his wife and all his kinsfolk, and on this 
account was hindered from making an early profession. But his con- 
science troubled him, especially when he was sick, and finally he sum- 
moned up sufficient courage to face all difficulties and confess Christ. 
His wife told him that if she had known that he would become a 
Christian she would have poisoned him. 

From Ramnagar, in the Gujranwala District, Miss McCullough 
wrote, Feb. i, 1892, "People at home as well as here have the idea 
that it is not hard for the low-caste people to become Christians. 
With my own eyes I have seen that it is hard for the respectable ones 
among them to do so. Yesterday a young man, named Piran Ditta, a 
sweeper, s was baptized. His family is among the best of his class. 
He has been an inquirer for some months. Saturday he came to us 
and said that he desired to be baptized on the Sabbath. We found 
that he wanted his wife also to become a Christian, and that she in- 
tended to comply with his wish. We found, too, that he had endured 
a great deal of persecution because he had openly declared that he was 
a Christian, and intended to be baptized in his own village, and wanted 
all to be present to see the rite performed. The Muhammadans tried 
to persuade him to join them and offered him a salary if he would do 
so. Yesterday, when he had received baptism, during the prayer, his 
mother began to beat him with a stick. He jumped and ran to one 
side ; and, after giving Laddha the catechist a blow, she ran after her 
son and beat him thoroughly, first with the stick and afterward with 
her shoe — at the same time weeping, and giving him the worst kind of 
abusive talk. He just stood and took it all." 

The harsh treatment which people continue to receive after they 
have professed Christianity has also a deterrent influence on all who 
think of joining their ranks. This ill treatment assumes a variety of 
forms. Sometimes our people are turned out of employment ; some- 
times they are kept from getting water at a public well ; sometimes 
troublesome lawsuits are brought against them and they are involved 
in debt ; sometimes they are compelled to do more than their share of 
work for government officers, and that too without pay — as has been 
the case when a Lieut. -Governor or a Financial Commissioner made 
his tour through a District ; sometimes they are unjustly put upon the 



OPPRESSION OP CHRISTIANS 



235 



official list of rogues and are consequently exposed to frequent arrest 
and much suffering — as was often done in the Sialkot District ; some- 
times they are falsely accused of crime and thrown into prison ; some- 
times they are cruelly beaten, as Bir Singh was by the farmers of Gan- 
gohar in 1887 ; sometimes they are deprived of their property by force 
or fraud, and treated with the greatest indignity; sometimes they are 
kept from prosecuting their 
own trade, as was the case 
once or twice at Sialkot 
with a bricklayer named 
Prema; sometimes false 
stories are circulated in 
regard to their character; 
sometimes a private wrong 
is done them and, instead 
of obtaining redress, they 
are punished as though this 
wrong had been done by 
themselves to the perpetra- 
tors. 

Two instances may be 
specially mentioned. 

One is that of a young 
Muhammadan living in the 
village of Bhado-Chida, 
who was baptized in 1894, 
and on account of this act 
was afterwards called upon 
to endure persecution. He 
was not allowed to take 
water from the common 
well, although he owned a 

third of it ; and one of the rooms attached to his house was burned. 
Yet we are told that he remained firm in the faith and was finally estab- 
lished in all his rights by the Deputy Commissioner. 

Another is the case of Rura of Chimma. When he was a lad he 
went out to cut grass with some other boys. The Jamadar of Qila, 
Suba Singh, a petty officer, came along and demanded the grass from 
him. Low-caste people, if sepies (that is, a kind of serfs), are expected, 



V 




PUNJABI POLICEMEN. 



236 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

and indeed bound, to comply with such orders. But Rura's father was 
not a sepi. So he said, "I am a Christian, I wont give you the 
grass." This enraged the jamadar, and exclaiming, "Why do you 
call yourself a Christian ? " he took the grass by force, beat Rura and 
said to the farmers, " Let some one arrange it so that this boy can be 
put in prison." A man, named Maulu, cut some of his own maize and 
mixed it with the grass that Rura had cut, then charged him with 
theft, and had him taken into custody and hand-cuffed. The same 
was also done to his father, and it was with the greatest difficulty that, 
even after the expiration of a week, they could recover their freedom. 
This treatment was much the same as that which the farmers of Mo- 
hanwala threatened the Christians of that place after the missionary 
camp would be removed. They said, " We will report you as thieves, 
even though we have to take some of our own goods and put them 
into your houses as a basis for accusation." 

Once a woman in Gurdaspur was so terribly beaten that her injuries 
resulted in death ; and, while something else was ostensibly the occa- 
sion of the attack, everybody believed that the real cause was her pro- 
fession of Christianity. Similar instances have also occurred in Zafar- 
wal and other parts of our field. And' sometimes, doubtless, secret 
murders of our members occur, about which we can only entertain sus- 
picion. But, after all, cases of persecution unto death within the limits 
of our field are rare indeed. For this, no doubt, we have reason to 
thank the strong arm of the British Government, which, while unable 
to prevent or remedy all minor ills, has hitherto providentially suc- 
ceeded in protecting most of the Lord's people from fatal onslaughts. 

It is probable, too, that the rigors of caste are giving way to some 
extent, especially in the case of Muhamrnadans, and that the time may 
be near when this great barrier to the gospel will be partly removed. 

Muhammad Husain, several months after his baptism, when the first 
flush of excitement, anger and opposition among his friends and core- 
ligionists had died away, began to visit his mother and other near rela- 
tives in their own home, and was even permitted to partake of food 
there, though apart from the rest ; and as far as known this intimacy 
still continues. Other similar cases might also be given. 

But the day of an easy and peaceful confession of Christ in India is 
to all human appearances far distant. Hitherto, at least, the work of 
evangelization has met with many obstructions, and the foundations 
of Zion have been laid amid the jeers and missiles of bystanders. 



CHAPTER XXI 




EVANGELISTIC RESULTS— I 

General Influence — Secret Converts — Professing Christians, their Number and Dis- 
tribution — Classes from which they are drawn — Causes of the Distinction. 

HEN Lady Dilke visited India in the winter of 1888-89 an d 
took pains to examine into the character of Christian Mis- 
sions, what struck her most was not the number of actual 
converts which they made, but the social and political 
influence which they exerted among the masses. She saw how, 
by means of education, moral teaching, good example, social 
intercourse, medical aid and hearty sympathy, missionaries and 
their assistants were winning the hearts of the people, elevating them 
in the scale of civilization and doing a work even for British Rule 
which Anglo-Indian officials did not and could not do. "It seems 
to me," she said, " that a day may come when the influence of their 
patient and self-sacrificing devotion will have created a bond of union 
between ruled and rulers which shall offer a stronger resistance to the 
advance of foreign foes than the weight of our sceptre and the sharpness 
of our sword." 

And the position thus gained by such laborers appears to strike al- 
most every one who makes a brief sojourn in India and does not 
actually shut his eyes to the facts of the case. Well does the writer 
remember how, when Dr. W. W. Barr and he visited our Mission in 
1880-81, the non-Christian natives of Gujranwala and Sialkot seemed 
to vie with Christian converts in showing their appreciation of the 
benefits conferred upon them by the missionaries and the church, from 
which they, as well as their visitors, had come. And even such Anglo- 
Indian papers as the Civil and Military Gazette, of Lahore, concede 
the point without question. Referring to Lady Dilke's conclusion that 
" socially and politically the missionary is a success," that paper says, 
"It is a pity she should have wasted time in proving such an estab- 

(237) 



238 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



lished fact. No one for a moment doubts that as a teacher and an 
examplar of Western doctrine and conduct the missionary is worth the 
price." And, in reviewing Sir Charles Aitchison's glowing address 
on the probability of converting India by means of missions, it admits 
" that India must profit by the non-official teaching of a creed, whose 
morality is above reproach, by men whose motives are above 
suspicion." 

Besides this, there is no doubt that o.ur own Mission, as well as 
others, has secured in many minds an intellectual belief in the truth of 

Christianity. Natives not a few 
have been brought to see its 
superiority to their own faith. 
They acknowledge its ability 
to purify society, spread intelli- 
gence, stimulate enterprise, ad- 
vance civilization, create wealth 
and conquer the world. They 
recognize in the Lord Jesus 
Christ a Person whose equal 
has never appeared on the earth. 
Were the people around them 
all ready for the change they 
would willingly abolish Hin- 
duism and Muhammadanism 
and substitute in their stead 
that religion which has made 
the West so much greater than 
the East. Without any spiritual 
conviction, or enough interest 
in the matter to break caste and follow an independent course, they 
yet might be called Christians as truly as many in England and America 
who actually bear the Christian name. 

Further, we can confidently claim some secret converts — an unregis- 
tered company of true believers, whose profession of faith in Christ has 
gone no further than that of credible private statements made to Chris- 
tian workers, or perhaps noiseless actions indicating more certainly 
than words that a change had been wrought in their hearts. 

A Hindu woman of Gujranwala, for instance, showed the utmost 
anxiety to hear and learn about Christ and to commit the Bible to 




CIVILIZATION AND SAVAGERY. 



SECRET CONVERTS 239 

memory. Such passages as John 3:16 were very dear to her. Though 
persecuted by her friends, and forbidden by her guru to read or hear 
the gospel, she persisted in her course and said, " I feel as if God 
would take away my very life if I quit reading and I cannot help it." 
She was also very fond of prayer and experienced the greatest willingness 
to try to obey God's commandments as fast as she learned what they 
were. Her spirit, too, seemed to be of the most childlike character. 
And yet she was not a public professor of Christianity. 

Another zenana inmate of the same place once said, " I would gladly 
leave this house of ease and plenty and beg my food from door to door 
if I could be free to serve Christ." 

Again a Brahman, of Zafarvval, who for some time had been an in- 
quirer and had often attended religious service, was taken fatally ill, 
and on his death-bed, though surrounded by Hindu relatives, made 
great efforts to secure the visit of some person who could tell him more 
about Christ. Providentially no one could be found near enough to 
gratify his desire. Who knows but that the seed already sown in his 
heart may have been growing secretly, and that, as in the case of the 
dying thief, though unwatered by sacramental ordinances, it may now 
be bearing fruit in paradise? 

So also may it be with one who on earth belonged to the other ex- 
treme of Hindu society — the sweepers' caste. She was the wife of 
a Christian, and died of consumption at Gujranwala in 1884. Though 
never baptized, she always took pleasure, during her illness, in the 
visits of Christian workers, and frequently asked them to read God's 
Word to her and pray with her. She often said that she trusted in the 
Lord Jesus Christ and loved God very much for sending his Son into 
the world to save sinners. Her husband also testified that she loved 
and trusted the Saviour and that even the heathen women around her 
said, "She died a Christian." 

Indeed so frequently are cases of apparent religious earnestness met 
with outside of the church that one of our number says, " I believe 
there are more Christians in India than we fancy. Baptism is not a 
saving ordinance. There are many hidden ones." 

But the chief proof of our evangelistic success is to be found after all 
in the number and the character of our professing converts. However 
much men may belittle statistics (while perhaps they magnify the in- 
definite considerations to which our attention has just been directed), 
it cannot after all be successfully denied that statistics are by all odds 



240 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

the most tangible and trustworthy basis upon which to rest our conclu- 
sions. If Elijah was encouraged by the fact, when made known to 
him, that 7000 Israelites had not bowed the knee to Baal, and even 
angels are said to rejoice over the conversion of one repenting sinner, 
the Christian Church now need not be ashamed, or afraid, to enumerate 
the trophies secured by her representatives in heathen lands — whether 
these trophies are numbered by ones or by thousands. It is only a 
kind of infidelity which contends that statistical tables, when discreetly 
prepared and intelligently examined, are misleading. 

Tables showing the progress of evangelistic work in our field are 
given in the Appendix to this volume. 

From these tables we learn that during the fifteen years, beginning 
Jan. 1, 1880, and ending Dec. 31, 1894, 9451 adults were baptized on 
their own profession of the Christian faith and that there were at the 
end of that time within our bounds 5756 persons termed either com- 
municants or baptized adults ; besides 3894 other baptized persons — 
making a total in our Christian community of 9650 souls.* 

Compared with the multitudes around us this number seems but 
a drop in the bucket, being less than one in every 400 of the en- 
tire population. And when we compare our absolute increase with 
the growth of the general community during the period referred to, 
the advancement made seems to be not only small but entirely hope- 
less. While the Mission has gained only a little over 9000 persons, the 
community as a whole has increased about 500,000 ; that is, there are 
now within the bounds of our field about 490,000 more people outside 
of the pale of the Christian Church than there were at the close of the 
year 1879. 

But when we compare percentages of increase the comparison puts 
on a different aspect. Supposing that we had a Christian community 
of 500 at the beginning of the year 1880 and 9650 at the close of 1894, 
our percentage of increase for the fifteen years intervening would be 
about 1830; while that of the population generally was only about fif- 
teen or sixteen. That is, the ratio of Christian growth has been 120 
times as great as that of the people taken as a whole. Supposing the 
same ratios of increase to continue during the next fifteen years, we 

* No account is here taken of the large number of persons who were dismissed to 
other denominations at the time of the readjustment of our mission boundaries. 
Through this process we experienced a net loss of 800 or 1000 communicants and 
I20O or 1500 of Christian population. For later statistics see p. 414. 



COMPARATIVE GROWTH IN NUMBERS 241 

should have, at the close, a Christian population of over 175,000, 
while the whole census would indicate an increase of 650,000; and 
during a subsequent period of like length the Christian Church would 
begin to take rapid strides in advance of the general community. But, 
as such calculations in regard to the future are largely speculative, all 
we need affirm here is that the work has made a good beginning and 
promises, with God's blessing, to approach nearer and nearer the goal 
of complete conquest. 

Compared with similar work around us, too, we have much reason to 
be thankful. According to the statistics of the Decennial Missionary 
Conference, the entire Protestant Native Christian Community in the 
Punjab in 1881 was 4762 ; in 1891 it was 20,729 — a growth of 335 per 
cent. Our figures for the same years were 660 and 10,165 respec- 
tively — that is, an increase of 1440 per cent. It will be seen, too, that 
our total Christian population was almost one-half that of the whole 
Punjab, although we had only 12 out of a total of 91 ordained mission- 
aries, 24 out of a total of 126 lady workers and 10 out of a total of 50 
native ministers. 

Compared with India generally also our growth was good. In 1881 
there were 417,372 Protestant native Christians in the whole peninsula; 
in 1890 there were 559,661 — an increase of about 34 per cent. Our 
increase for the same period, as already seen, was 1440 per cent. 

Even compared with similar work in the North India Conference of 
the American M. E. Church, ours was quite hopeful during the period 
referred to ; for their Christian population increased only 303 per cent., 
or about one-fifth that of our percentage. But since 1890, when our 
progress almost came to a standstill, they have been advancing so 
rapidly as to leave us far in the rear. In April, 1894, the whole Na- 
tive Christian Community, reported in the statistics of their India and 
Malaysia Missions, numbered 72,000, and people were being added to 
their roll at the rate of fifty a day. 

The 9650 native Christians now in our field are distributed as fol- 
lows: 1959 in the Sialkot Mission District; 2721 in Pasrur ; 1270 in 
Zafarwal ; 2202 in E. Gujranwala; 712 in W. Gujranwala; 595 in 
Gurdaspur; 39 in Pathankot ; 79 in Jhelum ; 46 in Rawal Pindi ; and 
27 in Bhera. * Thus it will be seen that the great body of them are 
found within the limits of a comparatively small region just north of 
the thirty-second parallel of latitude, between the seventy-fourth and 

*See map. 
16 



242 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



the. seventy-fifth degrees of longitude — Sialkot Civil District forming 
the central section, with parts of Gujranvvala and Gurdaspur flanking 
it on the western and eastern borders. This result is not surprising, 
since that is the region where we have worked longest and most — as it 
is also the region where live the majority of that class of people from 
which we have drawn the principal part of our converts. 

As early as 1859 a very interesting movement towards Christianity 
began among the Megs of Zafarwal and has continued, though not with 
uniform power, from that time down to the present.* 

But the movement which has brought the most converts into our 
fold originated in 1873 at Marali, which was then attached to the 
Sialkot Mission District, but afterward (from 
1882 to 1887 inclusive) to the Zafarwal District, 
and since then has been included in the Pasrur 
District. This was a movement among the 
Chuhras, a small, lame man, named Ditt, who 
is now an elder at Marali, being its first convert 
and the chief agent in causing its early spread 
there. From Marali this work extended in 
various directions wherever Chuhras were settled 
until it had reached every one of our Mission 
Districts except Rawal Pindi, Jhang and per- 
haps Jhelum. But the movement in Gujranwala 
among this class originated almost as early and 
may have been altogether independent. This 
started at Dogra tatti, near the city, and Kami 
Bakhsh, now an elder and earnest worker, was 
its first fruit. But whether independent or not, the influences 
emanating from both centers soon coalesced and co-operated with 
one another in their advancing course. 

The most productive years in our history were the seven commenc- 
ing with 1883 and ending with 1889 — J 886 being the climax, when 
1936 adults and 719 infants were baptized. But as the rise of the tide 
was not uniform so neither has been its fall. The year 1888 was more 
fruitful in conversions than 1887, and 1889 far surpassed any year pre- 
ceding 1886. Since 1889 there have been considerable yearly addi- 
tions by baptism — more than there were before the year 1883 ; but 
after all, to our apparent discredit, they have not been specially re- 
* Until 1882 Zafarwal was included in the Sialkot Mission District. 




UNDER FULL SAIL. 



FROM WHAT CLASSES CONVERTS COME 243 

markable except in one or two localities, while losses have been so 
great on account of the readjustment of boundaries, and for other 
reasons, that our net total Christian population was 300 less at the 
close of 1894 than five years previously. * 

From what classes do these converts come ? Briefly speaking, there 
have been more men converted than women — more villagers than city 
people — more poor than rich — more illiterate than educated — and more 
from the depressed than the higher classes. 

Perhaps twice as many men as women have been baptized. This 
has been due, not only to the greater intelligence of the male sex in 
that country and the more frequent opportunities which they have had 
for getting light, but also probably to the more conservative character 
of the female sex and their greater attachment to the customs, the su- 
perstitions and the religion of their ancestors. Old social ties, too, 
have perhaps been stronger in their case. 

The proportion of village to city Christians may be inferred from 
the number of points where they reside (557 in all) and the fact that 
we have at most only a few places altogether within the limits of our 
field that may be called cities or even towns. Probably nineteen- 
twentieths of our people live in villages of less than 800 inhabitants. 
The law regulating the growth of the Ancient and the Mediaeval Church 
seems, therefore, to be reversed in this particular as far as we are con- 
cerned — as far indeed as India Missions generally are concerned. It 
is not so much in the great centers that we find success as in country 
places. Should the work go on as it has been doing for a few genera- 
tions, the words heathen and pagan will not be appropriate with us in 
designating non-Christian, idolatrous people. If etymology is to be 
regarded in the use of terms, urband,i\<$. citizen will have to take their 
places. 

These people, too, are generally poorer than those who reside in 
towns, while those who confess Christ are mostly the poorest of these 
poor. The great body of our Christians are common coolies or 
sweepers, and earn a precarious livelihood as hired laborers. Many of 
them are agriculturists, but work for Hindu or Moslem farmers in a 
kind of serfdom. Nor is this serfdom of that fixed variety which 
guarantees permanent home and perpetual employment. They are 
liable to be dismissed from time to time at the will of their masters. 
A few of our people rent and farm land for themselves, while a rare in- 

* For additional statistics see p. 414. 



244 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

dividual, here and there, owns property as other zamindars do.* A 
number of the Christians speculate in skins and other articles of mer- 
chandise ; some weave for a living ; some are house servants ; some 
are teachers, scriveners, policemen, or employees in the civil service; 
while about 200 are working for the Mission. Among all these not 
one would be called wealthy even in India, and probably not more 
than one family in a hundred makes even a respectable living ; while 
the mass of our members would be glad to earn two or three dollars a 
month, each. 

That our converts previous to their baptism were generally illiterate 
is not perhaps in itself a very surprising fact, since the great body of 
the people in India are of this character. But it is a fact which ought 
to be noted, because some persons contend that education is almost a 
necessary preliminary to successful evangelism and also because we 
have labored diligently among all classes of society. A few educated 
("wise") men, have been "called;" perhaps one in a hundred of 
our adult baptisms has sprung from this class ; but when we consider 
the closeness of our relation to the educated people of our field, both 
in and out of schools, it is certainly surprising that they have not fur- 
nished us more converts. Education may not be an actual hindrance 
to the belief of the gospel, but the history of our work shows that it 
is at least not much of a help. Probably pride of intellect and learn- 
ing overbalance any advantage that may be derived from clear percep- 
tion and logical power. The humble "unwise" enter into the king- 
dom of heaven before those of an opposite character.^ 

So has it been also with outcaste and low-caste people. Although 
constituting but a small percentage of the entire population, they have 
furnished us twenty times as many converts as all the rest put together. 

Not that we have lacked in the matter of Hindu and Muhammadan 
conversions. As far as can be ascertained we have had as many of 
these as Missions generally. Indeed, contrary to the fears of some, 
our work among the depressed classes has been a help, rather than a 
hindrance, to work among the higher classes. Hindus and Muham- 
madans, who would take their children out of a school established for 
themselves, on the introduction of low-caste pupils, are, in villages, 

*On inquiry in April, 1891, it was found that of the 98 boys then present in our 
Christian Training Institute 25 were agriculturists, while only one of these came 
from a family that worked its own land. 

f See pp. 165-167, 173. 



CONVERTS FROM THE LOWLY 245 

glad enough to send their boys and girls to a school that had been es- 
tablished primarily for Chuhra Christians. Efforts, therefore, to edify 
our village people furnish additional bases for operations among their 
''better-born" neighbors. Besides, Chuhras have themselves been 
known to be the agents in securing Hindu conversions. And, what is 
still more important perhaps, the conversion, education, moral im- 
provement and elevation of people, who have for generations been al- 
most beneath contempt, furnish an object lesson of the most striking 
character, showing everywhere in unmistakable language the power of 
our holy religion, and this influence has had something to do in win- 
ning the higher classes. 

Still our main success, as already stated, has not been among the 
latter but among the despised and the downtrodden — among those 
who are considered too degraded to have even a name or a place in 
the system of Hindu caste. 

This, however, is by no means an exceptional fact. All the ad- 
vance movements of Christian Missions in India have been among 
similar people. It is from the Karens, the Telugus, the Santals, the 
Chamars, the Kols, the Khasis, the Shanars, the Chuhras, and other 
tribes of like standing, that the present Indian Church has received 
the great body of its membership ; and the Salvation Army seems to 
get a large part of its soldiers from the Dheds of Gujarat, the Mahars 
of Poona and the Pariahs of Cape Comorin. No remarkable work has 
ever yet been reported among the Brahmans, the Rajputs, the Khatri- 
yas, or even the Muhammadans. 

Such also has ever been the history of Christian Missions. The 
gospel, in permeating society, has almost always filtered up instead of 
down. Except when propagated by force, it usually begins with the 
lower strata of the people and gradually rises until it reaches the noble 
and the great. It was a matter of reproach in the early days of Chris- 
tianity, and strenuously urged against it by its enemies, that " the new 
sect was composed almost entirely of the dregs of the populace, of 
peasants and mechanics, of boys and women, of beggars and slaves." 
And earlier still, the Apostle Paul writes to the Corinthians : "Ye see 
your calling, brethren, how that not many wise men after the flesh, not 
many mighty, not many noble, are called ; but God hath chosen the 
foolish things of the world to confound the wise ; and God hath 
chosen the weak things of the world to confound the things which are 
mighty ; and base things of the world, and things which are despised, 



246 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

hath God chosen, yea, and things which are not, to bring to nought 
things that are : that no flesh should glory in His presence." Other 
words could scarcely be selected more fitting than these to describe 
the condition of the Indian Church at the present time.* 

And then, besides being in accordance with God's usual method of 
operation, this result has been favored in our case by special provi- 
dences : 

First, by the fact that these poor people are without caste, and 
hence free from those restraining rules and harsh customs which, as we 
have seen, do so much to prevent the spread of the gospel leaven. f 
Christian converts from this class are not persecuted as much by their 
old friends as those that come to us from Hinduism or Islam. And, 
what is more important, they are allowed to remain at home where they 
can act as evangelistic workers among their own kindred. 

These outcaste people, too, are freer from superstition and entangling 
error than others. They are not troubled either with the fierce con- 
victions of the Moslems or the ensnaring philosophies of the Hindus. 
Their minds are more of a blank in regard to religious subjects ; and 
whatever beliefs they have resemble more the teachings of Christianity 
than do those of most of the inhabitants of India. J 

Again, this class have been for some time in a transition state. 
Little by little their old religious moorings have been abandoned ; one 
by one they have been attaching themselves to other faiths. North of 
a certain latitude almost all have become Muhammadans. The Musal- 
lies of Jhelum belong to this class ; as also do many in the Gujranwala 
District. Some have adopted Sikhism and thus acquired the name of 
Mazhabi Sikhs — that is, Sikhs by religion. Others are yielding greater 
and greater homage to Brahmans and bid fair to become, at some future 
date, a Hindu caste. And this migratory tendency is favored by their 
general desire to rise in the social scale. They are aiming at better 
things in every point of view. No wonder then that Christianity 
furnishes for them elements of attraction, and that some are led to 
adopt it as their new religion. 

And especially so when we observe again that their tribal^traditions 
and prophecies point in this direction. Some years ago Mrs. S. Mar- 
tin wrote as follows : " The wide door effectually opened among these 
people (the Chuhras) is a remarkable providence. There is a wide- 
spread belief among them to this effect : — that they and other Hindus 

*See pp. 165-167, 173. f See pp. 223-225. % See pp. 117-119. 



A CHUHRA TRADITION 



•24; 



are descended from a common ancestor, that at one time a cow died 
in front of this ancestor's home and that the elder sons, having suc- 
cessively refused to remove it, induced their youngest brother Balmik, 
or Balisha, to take it away, promising that after four hours he should 
be purified and restored to the family. At the end of the four hours 
they put it off till the fourth day ; and on the fourth day it was post- 




COCOANUT TREES. 



poned for four months ; and then again, for four years. When four 
years had transpired they declared he could not be restored at that 
time, but a promise was given that his descendants would certainly be 
restored in the fourth yvg* They believe that this fourth yug has 
now come and that Chuhras, Hindus and Muhammadans are all to be- 
come Christians, and in this way all are to become one people." 
Through such traditional sayings and beliefs as these many of these 
*Or jug — that is, age, period. 



248 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

outcastes have been brought under Christian instruction and through 
this to a saving knowledge of Christ. 

But are not these people, morally speaking, the most depraved part of 
the whole community ? By no means. Caste in India has nothing to 
do with morals. Intellectually, indeed, the low castes are beneath the 
higher castes ; and so they are also in the ability to lead, hold their 
own, and act independently. This is shown where both classes con- 
tend with each other, on an equal footing, in schools and other places, 
and is proved also by the fact that they have been kept so long in a 
state of subjection ; although this subordination has been partly the 
cause, as well as the effect, of the inferiority mentioned, and may 
therefore be removed in time by a course of training. But, as far as 
morals are concerned, they are equal to any other great class in British 
India and superior to some of these classes. 




* «^i£ 



CHAPTER XXII 



EVANGELISTIC RESULTS— II 

Character of Native Christians — Doubts of Some Regarding their Piety— No " Re- 
vivals " — Many Ignorant and Imperfect — Some Fall Away — Proofs of a Work 
of Grace — Many Stand Good Church Examinations — Make Great Sacrifices — 
Bear Persecution — Desire Knowledge — Love their Christian Teachers— Ex- 
hibit Comparatively High Morality — Christian Servants, Worthless or Not? — 
Why — Native Christians Not Specially Covetous — But Liberal — Show Continual 
Improvement — Are Anxious for the Salvation of Others — Testimony as to the 
Character of Individuals — Ameera — Daulah — Chhero. 



ND now comes the inquiry, What is the spiritual and moral 
character of our professing Christians ? Are they truly 
united to the Saviour or not ? This is a question which 
is often asked, and especially in regard to those who 




come to us from the depressed classes. And there are unfriendly 
critics who do not hesitate to give them a bad name and to 
say that our work is destitute of the marks of a work of grace, or at 
least of a great work of grace. The same thing, too, has been said of 
work among similar classes elsewhere, and even of the whole mass of 
native Christians in India. Such superficial observers as Canon Tay- 
lor, and even many Anglo-Indian officials, speak of " the great mis- 
sionary failure" and refuse to believe that any Christianizing influence 
has been exerted on those of the Indian people who have been brought 
into the church. A member of the Civil Service writes that 99 per 
cent, of his associates consider every native Christian a blackguard, a 
thief and a liar ; although his own testimony on the subject, after 
thorough trial, is the very opposite ; and Dr. Robson says that native 
Christians are better exponents of Christianity than the majority of 
Anglo-Indians themselves. 

It is admitted that our people have not been led to profess Christ 
through the gateway of what is called a " revival; " that is, through 
the instrumentality of mass-meetings in which the Spirit of God has 

(249) 



250 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

demonstrated His overwhelming power by the production of loud cries, 
or other expressions of deep feeling. We have had no pentecostal 
outpourings where individuals exhibited profound conviction of sin, 
great fear of divine wrath or strong love for the Saviour, or where the 
mass of the hearers seemed to be swayed hither and thither by the 
irresistible impulse of a Superior Presence. Nor, as far as the writer is 
aware, have there been any such revivals among the natives anywhere 
else in all India. This may be due to the peculiarity of their tempera- 
ment — : not being an emotional people — or it may be due to the fact 
that Christianity comes to them, not so much as an old faith, already 
accepted in a historical sense, to be now received also with the heart, 
as a new faith to be now acknowledged as the only true religion for 

the first time with the understanding as 
well as the emotions. But, whatever 
may be the cause, such no doubt is the 
actual history of our work. * 

It must be admitted also that many 
of our people, as yet, are very ignorant. 
They have only lately come from the 
depths of heathenism and spiritual dark- 

GTIAHRIES neSS " ^he °^ ei " ° neS ° aVe not ^ eetl 

educated. They lack the intellectual 
discrimination necessary for profound thought and the memory needful 
to retain much truth. Their opportunities for information, too, have 
been limited. 

Moreover, many of them exhibit great imperfection of life and char- 
acter, just as Christians do all the world over. Indeed, it is only right 
to say that in some respects they are exceptionally weak. Those sins 
to which they were peculiarly liable in an unconverted state cannot be 
uprooted all at once. Superstitions and temptations to immorality 
still retain something of their former power ; their views of Christian 
marriage are defective ; and the Sabbath is not kept by them as it is 
in America and Scotland. Nor are religious habits of any kind as 
universally and as firmly fixed as they ought to be ; while periods 
of spiritual declension may be noted in the case of individuals and 
even whole communities, which lasts for months and sometimes 
years. 

Many also reveal in time the fact that they have never experienced a 
change of heart. Some fall into gross sin and are suspended from the 
* See Note 4 on p. 415. 




PROOFS OF PIETY OF NATIVE CHRISTIANS 251 

privileges of the church. Some commit crime and find a lodging-place 
in jail. A few apostatize and return to their former faith. 

Still, that many of the conversions are genuine and that a great 
work of grace has been going on in our field, can be established, we 
think, by convincing proofs. 

One proof is the character of the answers which they give when they 
are admitted into the church on examination. These often exhibit 
great simplicity, earnestness and real religious experience. An ex- 
aminer, hearing them, cannot resist the conclusion that the applicants 
are sincere in their Christian profession. 

Great sacrifices are also sometimes made by many who join the 
church and a willingness is shown to abandon everything that is op- 
posed to Christianity. An exorcist of Pasrur, for instance, who relied 
upon his conjurations as a means of livelihood, gave up his business 
entirely in honor of the wonder-working Messiah and after baptism 
earned his bread by the sweat of his brow. 

Persecution, too, as we have already seen,* is frequently endured 
upon such occasions, and this persecution, moreover, is often of the 
most trying character, and may be continued for many years. It is 
hard to see how men can voluntarily bear so much opposition and suf- 
fering, without the prospect of much temporal good as a result, if they 
are not true Christians. 

Many of our people have also a great desire for knowledge, both 
secular and religious. The village schools are well attended and 
parents generally want their children to study also in the Christian 
Training Institute ; while the love of preachers and preaching is widely 
diffused and sometimes intense. Often requests are made by Chris- 
tians for the establishment of a school in their village or for the loca- 
tion of a Christian worker there. Voluntary, independent movements, 
too, are sometimes attempted. A young man living at a village three 
miles distant from Badomalli attended school at the latter place in the 
morning and in the afternoon gathered the children together in his 
own town — his little sisters along with the rest — and taught them from 
day to day what he had learned himself, and appeared to do it well ; 
nor did he seem to expect any compensation for the work. 

Frequently the warmth of affection shown by village Christians for 
their religious instructors is very touching. They will run to meet 
them as they are approaching their town, escort them to their lodging- 
* See pp. 229-236. 



252 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

place, give them the best attention which their circumstances allow, 
express great regret that they cannot come oftener and even send for 
them when their absence becomes protracted. " Sometimes I feel 
almost discouraged," says a zenana worker, "when people in the vil- 
lage send for us to come to them and seem so eager to hear, and at the 
same time have the women in the city scolding because we do not go 
oftener to them, when we are working to the point of exhaustion every 
day." Nor is it the worker alone who is loved. The message which 
he brings is after all the chief attraction. Says a superintendent of 
missions, " Men who have worked from sunrise to sunset under the In- 
dian sun in the harvest field sit gladly till almost midnight to listen to 
the gospel." Occasionally, too, people will go a long distance to hear 
the Word. A woman in the Pasrur District once walked ten miles, 
carrying a baby, to attend religious services ; and others walked twelve 
miles, carrying their little ones, to be present at a meeting of the 
Women's Missionary Association at Zafarwal, in the winter of 
1892-93. 

It may also be confidently affirmed that the standard of morality and 
good conduct among our people is higher than it is among the classes 
from which they have sprung. Cases of discipline, scandalous sin, and 
apostasy do indeed sometimes arise ; but they are rare — rarer, too, among 
low-caste converts than among others. Comparatively speaking, we have 
little trouble on account of the use of opium or strong drink, stealing 
or profanity, false swearing or rioting, idolatry or exorcism, polygamy 
or wife-beating, or even breaches of the seventh commandment. And, 
while there is often reluctance shown to bring offenders to justice in 
ecclesiastical courts, it is doubtful whether more of this feeling exists 
among Christians in India than in America. 

That some native professing Christian domestics are worthless is no 
doubt true, and that even missionaries, knowing the temptations which 
beset servants and aware that few besides those who are disqualified for 
higher work apply for employment in this capacity, often hesitate to 
hire them, is also true ; but, as far as our observation goes, there is no 
ground for that wholesale condemnation of those who enter domestic 
service which is fashionable in certain quarters. A part of them adorn 
their Christian profession in this sphere and set a good example to their 
associates ; while the average honesty and faithfulness of the whole 
class is certainly superior to that of Hindus and Muhammadans in a 
like position. 



NATIVE CHRISTIANS— THEIR LIBERALITY 253 

The causes of the preference given by many Englishmen to heathen 
domestics and employees are various. One has heard Christian ser- 
vants condemned by a friend ; another has tried one and found him 
wanting ; a third fears their employment would arouse the jealousy or 
the opposition of other servants ; another dislikes the strain of always 
setting a good example to those who, he knows, are constantly ex- 
pecting it ; another wants his private life hidden from all who bear the. 
Christian name ; another prefers servants whom he can kick and cuff 
as " niggers," without any fear of scandal ; another despises mission- 
aries and all who are connected with them. 

That native Christians also try to better their own worldly condi- 
tion, and are sometimes even covetous, is also admitted. In this respect 
they resemble their brethren in other parts of the world, especially in 
England and America. But that this, with them, is a peculiarly beset- 
ting sin can hardly be proved ; nor, except in a few cases, can it be 
shown that they are transgressing the spirit of a commandment which 
requires " the lawful procuring and furthering the wealth and outward 
estate of ourselves and others." That men reduced to the extreme of 
poverty which they exhibit should seek more of the comforts of life is 
only natural and right. So long as they do not make mammon their 
god, they are simply treading the path of duty. 

And we find that this trait does not by any means prevent the rise, 
or suppress the growth, of Christian liberality. True, the aggregate of 
their religious and charitable contributions is not great, and many fail 
to give as the Lord hath prospered them. But some do remarkably 
well. In several cases churches or school houses have been erected 
wholly, or chiefly, by native Christians. A number of laborers have 
also been supported by the funds which they contributed. For some 
time nearly all the members of the Sialkot church gave three per cent, 
of their income to make up the pastor's salary. Hundreds of rupees 
were given yearly by natives to swell the Presbyterial treasury. Vol- 
untary thank-offerings, moreover, have not been unknown ; and, 
where cash was not available, farm products have been substituted. At 
Badoki, for example, a large brass pan is sometimes set in the midst of 
the congregation, in which, at the proper time, men, women and 
children deposit the contributions of various kinds of grain which they 
bring in their cotton shawls and chadars. And the chief reason, no 
doubt, why larger results in this direction are not realized is because 
suitable means have not yet been employed everywhere to secure them. 



254 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

The fact, too, that in most cases continual improvement in every 
respect is manifested, and that even backsliders have been reclaimed, 
goes far to prove the presence of God's Spirit and the hopeful condi- 
tion of the work generally. 

" I have been out among the Christians all the month and am glad 
to say that I found them all well and growing slowly in knowledge and 
grace, with one or two exceptions." " We met with discouragement, 
but I never was as much encouraged in the work as now." "There 
seems to be a steady improvement in the Christian community at Sad- 
owal. The women show much more intelligence with regard to Bible 
knowledge than they did two or three years ago." " I am greatly en- 
couraged in regard to the Christians who came from the outcaste 
classes. In many places we see a great increase in knowledge, a very 

evident strengthening of the faith, a 
greater desire for holiness of life and 
more zeal in good works." Such word 
often has come to us in reports and 
private letters during the past twelve 
years. 

The recovery of Badoki and other 
backsliding congregations is also very 
significant. For several years Badoki 
khargosh. was considered lost and doubts were 

entertained whether it had ever enjoyed 
the presence of God's Spirit. But in 1888 it began to revive, and 
in 1889 Miss McCullough writes of it, "Badoki has given us more 
heartaches than any other village of the District, and it is comforting 
now to see signs of growth in grace." And afterwards these signs 
grew stronger and stronger. 

Another encouraging evidence that God has been with us is the 
anxiety which our people have had for the salvation of their friends and 
neighbors, and their zeal in trying to bring them into the Christian 
fold. How much this has aided our evangelistic work has already been 
mentioned,* and further reference need not be made to it here, except 
to say that we can hardly present a stronger proof that Christ has been 
dwelling in the hearts of his professed people. 

More than this, the testimony of Christian workers, both native and 
foreign, as to the character of individuals with whom they have been 

*See pp. 195, 196. 




TESTIMONY REGARDING INDIVIDUALS 255 

closely associated, as also in regard to the work generally, may be cited 
in great abundance to prove the claim that God's Spirit has been work- 
ing with us. 

" I believe Dina Nath to be a true Christian." 

" How well Khaji trains up her children ! " 

" He was a good boy — remarkably fond of his Bible — devoted to his 
Master's service." 

" Fazl Din says he is often deeply moved by the effects of preach- 
ing ; and his throat seems to fill up as he makes this statement." 

"He is a good man ; I just love him." 

" It made our hearts rejoice to see how readily he accepted Christ as 
the Son of God and his only Saviour." 

"Tears sometimes come into the eyes of Wadhawa's wife and evi- 
dence of deep emotion is given as I speak to her of Jesus, his death 
and his love." 

" Shana, my chaukidar, gives three annas a month for the support 
of the church, and that, too, without being asked. He seeks the 
treasurer." 

"The man named Hukma is quite grey-haired, but he is very 
earnest, and during the preaching, when it was said that the world 
would hate and persecute them, he laughed right out, literally fulfilling 
Christ's command (Matt. 5 : 12) to rejoice and be exceeding glad. 
Thus we see that the leaven is working and the Spirit is working, too." 

" Farman Shah, in all his trouble, has never faltered in his allegiance 
to Christ, and says that even if they kill him he will not. give Him up." 

"A man who had denied his Saviour two years ago was received 
back, and this time his wife also came and was baptized. At the close 
of the communion service I took him by the hand, saying, ' Hidayat 
Masih, you have brought reproach upon His name in the past ; I hope 
you will strive all the more to honor Him in the future.' To this he 
made no reply, but I saw the tears flowing freely, and I thought of 
Peter, who, remembering his sin, went out and wept bitterly." 

" Rahim Bakhsh grew in grace and less worldly towards the last, and 
gave evidence of genuine religious experience." 

"Two members have died during the year. One of these was a 
student of theology — a good, promising boy. His disease was con- 
sumption, and in all his sufferings he gave evidence of earnest faith in 
Christ." 

" From the time of Likar's conversion till God called him away, his 



256 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

walk and conversation, although not perfect, were such as marked him 
as one destined for a better land." 

" Kaka, while on his deathbed, said, ' This is not my house; I am 
going to a beautiful home ' — that is, where Christ lives. Another con- 
vert, Kanda by name, having been attacked by pneumonia and being 
in great pain, was asked if he was afraid to die ; he replied, ' No ; why 
should I fear when Jesus is near me.' Seeing his relations greatly 
worried over his sickness, he requested them to be calm, saying, ' My 
faith is firm in Christ.' " 

" It has not been my lot here to visit a happier family or one where 
husband and wife seemed so happy in each other and so mutually de- 
voted to the work of Christ." 

" There is much to encourage. Some of the girls give unmistak- 
able evidence of Christian development." 

" Incidents are becoming much more frequent which show that the 
leaven of the gospel is working among the masses and among all 
classes." 

" On the whole, work is encouraging in the majority of the vil- 
lages." 

" There are some who I trust shall shine as jewels in the Saviour's 
crown. I well recall listening to an old man as he recited the story of 
the sufferings and betrayal of our Saviour. Tears came to my eyes and 
his voice broke as he told of Peter's denial and thought of his own too 
frequent denials of that same Master. This man was careful to instruct 
his family and to repeat with them, each day, the Lord's Prayer." 

" Some said of their persecutors, ' They may drive us out of the vil- 
lage, but they can't drive us away from Christ.' " 

" While the village men are talking to me of their own trials, diffi- 
culties and successes, and of their own Christian experience, I receive 
benefit myself." 

"The Christians in many villages show an interest in the Word of 
God and a desire to receive instruction. While still ignorant, some at 
least have obtained a saving knowledge of Christ." 

"The progress made and the change effected are simply wonder- 
ful." 

" What would have seemed a miracle to the missionaries a few years 
ago has now come upon us so gradually that we scarcely realize what 
has been done and is being done by the Spirit of God here. No 
earthquake ; no noise as of a rushing mighty wind ; but a still, small 



SUMMARY OF TESTIMONIALS 257 

voice, a secret working of the leaven, a quiet germination and growth 
of the seed sown. Watered by the gentle dews of the Spirit, it has 
sprung up, until now the fields seem waving with ripening grain." 

" I must say that I am not only hopeful but confident that the great 
majority of those baptized will prove themselves to be living stones in 
the temple of our God, provided hard, faithful, patient and loving 
work be done among them." 

" The solemn conviction forced itself upon us that none other than 
the Lord Christ Himself, being by the right hand of God exalted and 
having received of the Father the promise of the Holy Ghost, did shed 
forth this which we saw and heard. Overwhelmed with awe, we could 
but exclaim, ' The Lord hath done great things for us, whereof we are 
glad.'" 

These testimonials have been culled at random from letters, reports 
and other documents covering almost the whole period which has 
elapsed since 1881 and emanating from every part of our field. They 
show the opinion of a large number of our workers — foreigners and 
natives, men and women — in regard to matters coming under their 
immediate observation, written mostly at the time when their impres- 
sions were fresh and when they would be least likely to be mistaken. 
Nor has the Mission as a body shrunk from officially endorsing their 
judgment. Even at an early stage of the work she declared that God 
had "vouchsafed a manifest blessing upon her labors" and resolved 
to recognize this fact with profound gratitude and great joy. 

How any one, therefore, can deny the reality of a great work of 
grace among us is a mystery. God's Spirit has certainly been abroad 
"convincing and converting sinners and building them up in holiness 
and comfort, through faith, unto salvation." Even if half our pro- 
fessing Christians were hypocrites, this would still be true. 

As a further proof and illustration, however, of the manner in v/hich 
Christ has been manifestly transforming and guiding these poor people, 
I take the liberty of condensing and appending several biographic no- 
tices which were given by Miss C. E. Wilson in the Christian In- 
structor of July 23, 1 89 1. 

" Ameera, a low-caste woman, was a heathen when I came to Guj- 
ranwala in 1875 5 ^ ut within two years this unhappy, grumbling old 
creature was transformed into a happy, bright-faced Christian ; and she 
has continued so to this day, with very few slips into the slough of 
despond. 
17 



258 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

" When Miss Calhoun first gave her the gospel message she thought 
it too good news for her, and said, ' I am too old to change my re- 
ligion now.' But in the course of time she accepted Christ and was 
received into His church by baptism. Ever after her dark, wrinkled 
face was lit up with joy and peace. She believed, and realized the 
abiding presence of the Saviour, and has often strengthened my faith 
and gratitude, when calling upon her to read God's Word to her and 
pray with her. She was always so grateful for the least kindness shown 
her and constantly thanking and praising God for His goodness. I 
often felt that she was outstripping me in grace and faith. She had 
nothing but the coarsest food and clothing and her surroundings were 
bare of all temporal comfort ; and her happy, contented spirit was a 
constant rebuke, calling up Paul's question, ' Who hath made thee to 
differ?' 

" Of late years she expresses herself as waiting for Jesus to call her 
home, and often longs for His coming. I have not seen her lately, but 
Mrs. Murray says that her faith is firm and that she still enjoys hear- 
ing the Word of God and engaging in the exercise of prayer." 

"In the early part of my mission life, in Ameera's village there was 
a young school girl, named Daulah. She, with a number of others, 
learned to read the gospel and accepted its teachings. As the fruit of 
Miss Calhoun's labors, she and several of her companions were received 
into the church ; and she was shortly after married to a young Chris- 
tian, named Nanak, and the two served us faithfully as house servants 
for several years. When Miss McCullough went home on a furlough, 
they were sent to live in a village and work as catechists. She became 
the mother of six children. The last one came during the dreadful 
fever epidemic in the Gujranwala District and she and her babe, and 
another child, succumbed to it. 

" She was a good wife and mother, and a beautiful, little, black-eyed 
woman. Though not a woman of marked piety, she was a steadfast 
Christian and died a hopeful Christian death. Those who were at her 
bedside say that she repeated nearly one-half of the first chapter of 
John and the twenty-third Psalm and said a great many things about 
Christ. Mrs. Murray, who was with her and prayed with her, bears 
testimony to her joyful death." 

" Chhero was one of two Christian young men of the Gurdaspur 
District whom we employed last summer to pull pankhas for us. He 
was quite blind. We became acquainted with him about three years, 



CHHERO, THE BLIND COOLY 259 

ago, on our first itinerating tour through this District. His mother 
brought him to us and plead with us to try and save his eyes, lest he 
should go blind. We gave him medicine and all was done to save 
them that could be done, but the white scum continued to grow, and 
soon the light of this world was quite shut out from him. He had 
learned to read a little before his eyesight gave way. He had a reten- 
tive memory and a tolerably bright mind, and gave good heed to the 
Word of God read in his hearing, and committed to memory six chap- 
ters of Matthew and the whole of a little catechism on the Bible. By 
this means he got a good knowledge of Scripture history and seemed 
to know it all by heart. During the two months and a half that he 
was with us we also gave him additional lessons with the view of mak- 
ing him a teacher of more ignorant people. He was so cheerful, kind 
and willing, too, that we all learned to love him and were sorry when 
vacation time came, and he had to go home. 

"But he soon took the fever and, after an illness of eight days, 
called his mother and said, ' God is calling me. I want to give some- 
thing in His name before I go.' She had nothing in the house but 
some crude sugar, about ten cents' worth, and she called her neighbors 
and distributed that among them in his behalf. The mother wept and 
said, 'O son, how can I spare you?' He replied, 'This little 
brother, Yusif, in your lap, will take my place and comfort you.' He 
then asked if. it was ten o'clock. When told that it was about that 
time (for they had no timepiece), he said, ' I am going to God ; salam 
to you ; this is the time he told me I was to go ; ' and then he quietly 
passed away. 

" His friends and neighbors, and we all, felt sorry when we heard 
of his death ; yet we rejoice in the good evidence we had that he was a 
true child of Jesus. Nothing pleased him more than to recite or hear 
His word and sing His praise, and his prayers were full of simple faith 
and trust. On one occasion he greatly touched our hearts by the 
grateful manner in which he thanked God for all the kindness of the 
missionaries who had come so far to teach them, and by the manner 
in which he also said, ' I thank Thee, Heavenly Father, that, though 
Thou hast seen fit to deprive me of bodily sight, yet Thou hast given me 
spiritual sight and fixed Thy truth in my heart.' He did not give up 
hope of bodily sight being restored until Dr. Johnson examined his 
eyes last summer and solemnly told him there was no hope. The 
ringing, hearty answer, ' All right ! ' brought tears to the eyes of those 



260 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



who heard it. His mother still grieves for such a loving son ; but we 
tell her not to weep for him, but to prepare to meet him in heaven." 

Such are a few examples of the grace of God as it is displayed in the 
redemption of the Chuhras — the most despised of the low-caste peo- 
ple — and a partial proof of the fact that our labor has not been in vain 
in the Lord. 





CARING FOR HER YOUNG. 



' CHAPTER XXIII 
LOWER TRAINING OF CHRISTIANS 

Stages of Missionary Work — Training of Christians in a Compound — In a Village — ■ 
The Underworker — Village Life — Primary Duties — Worship Described — Sing- 
ing, Prayer, Sacraments — The Sabbath School — Secular Schools — Their Draw- 
backs — Teaching Urdu — Central Schools and Inspectors — Panckayats — Sub- 
superintendence — The Missionary's Work — Monthly Meetings — Methods Auto- 
cratic — Me/as — Christian Villages or Settlements — Hindrances to Primary 
Training — The Result. 

HE second great part of a missionary's task, as we have al- 
ready seen,* is the establishment of a self-supporting, self- 
propagating church. And this part comprehends two main 
subdivisions — first, the training of Christian converts; and 
secondly, ecclesiastical organization proper and church development. 
Together with evangelism, these constitute an ascending series in the 
scale of missionary duties. First the materials for a church must be 
collected. This is the work of evangelism. Then these materials must 
be trimmed and polished. This is the work of Christian training. 
Then, having been prepared, they must be built up into a living temple. 
This is the work of church edification. 

Not that these various branches of labor are so essentially distinct 
that they cannot be carried on simultaneously or that they cannot co- 
operate with one another. An ideal condition of things means the 
very opposite. It exhibits a work of Christian training which also 

* See pp. 148, 149. 

(261) 




2G2 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

reaches out after the conversion of sinners, and shows a developing 
church which assumes more and more the edification of its own mem- 
bers and the evangelization of the people around it. The three proc- 
esses should overlap and interpenetrate one another; and this to some 
extent has been realized in our own case. But, as a matter of fact, 
this ideal is seldom fully attained ; and in giving a description of the 
progress of our efforts, it is convenient to make the distinction 
specified. 

The work of training converts contemplates their advancement in 
everything which helps to make them intelligent, steadfast, active and 
useful Christians — that is, in religious knowledge, good habits, pure 
morals, spiritual desires and holy zeal. It really begins before their 
baptism as a preparation for the reception of that sacred rite ; and 
some of our workers are disposed to prolong this period of preparation, 
partly as a test of the sincerity of the candidates, and partly because, 
in some instances, converts show more desire for improvement before 
they are baptized than afterwards. But the general rule is to baptize 
applicants as soon as they make a credible profession of faith and leave 
the chief work of training to be done subsequently — as appears to be 
directed in Matt. 28 : 19, 20. 

In the case of high-caste converts and Muhammadans, almost all of 
whom are compelled to leave home as soon as they forsake their old 
religion, this training is usually done at, or near, the Christian laborer's 
own residence — that is, in a Mission compound. Here they are brought 
under gospel influence, day by day, and gradually led into all truth 
and duty. 

But the great body of our people, as already stated, are of low-caste 
origin and can stay without great difficulty in their own houses and 
among their own kindred ; and often whole families of this class, and 
even whole connections, are baptized at the same time. 

Supposing then that a number of persons in a village, or in several 
neighboring villages, have passed the initial stage of formal admission 
to church membership, the first thing usually done afterward is to put 
a Christian helper there to act as an underworker. He goes from house 
to house, gets acquainted with the peculiarities of each individual, cor- 
rects any wrong impressions which the people may have had respecting 
Christianity, confirms their opposition to the false religion which they 
have abandoned, teaches them as fast as he can passages of Scripture, 
a Bible Catechism, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer and 



CHUHRA QUARTER OF A VILLAGE 263 

the fundamental principles of our holy faith, urges them to abandon 
every form of sin, and exhorts them to commence family and secret 
prayer. He also meets with them as often as he can — perhaps every 
d a y_f or public worship, and on the Sabbath is expected, not only to 
conduct a regular religious service and preach, but also to hold a Sab- 
bath School and catechetically instruct all, old and young, in regard 
to divine things. 

Sometimes, too, one of the more intelligent of the members is 
deputed to act as his assistant and helps to keep his neighbors up to 
the right mark ; while in due season a school teacher is also added. 

It is hard for one who has not actually seen the village life of 
Chuhras in India to imagine the humble and peculiar circumstances 
under which this work is done. 

Remember that the Chuhra quarter is on the outskirts of the village 
proper, facing the open country (which 

is not remarkable for its sweet smells *) /-_ -^=o» *w. 

and often near scooped-out, artificial -* JMk 

ponds of dirty water, called chhappars, {^f-">I>^3ff^Uf^*^^^^^ 
which serve for washing and bathing ^^^^ffBfeJ^jrfjft' ^ 
and (in extreme cases) drinking pur- W~ i#®fc'3^H^^^fflr" U 
poses, as well as for the refreshment of "^^liJy^^^B^^fe^'jSK 
buffaloes and other domestic animals. f '^^^^^PE*^^S^^« 
Remember that the village streets are ■*•■■*£. 

narrow and filthy, often only three or hyena. 

four feet wide — that the houses are all 

built of mud and consist each of only a room or two, facing a small 
court which is surrounded by a mud wall — that the furniture of the poor 
people comprises simply one or two chaipais, a spinning-wheel, some 
cooking utensils and a few other articles — that the dusky children of 
the place go about without much if any clothing on, and that generally 
the men and sometimes the women, appear in such soiled and scanty 
attire that they would be arrested as public nuisances in any American 
town. Remember, too, that the men are generally absent in daylight 
at their field work; that all, old and young, are at the outset perfectly 

* Fields adjacent to an Indian town are always covered with the remains of dead 
animals, deposits of human filth, and rubbish of every description, while scavenger 
birds and animals are often present, busy at their gluttonous and nasty, but highly 
necessary, work. 

| See illustration on p. 184. 



264 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

illiterate and that at first there is no public meeting-place, except an open 
common, where a person can collect the people to give them an address. 

Under such circumstances, the Christian worker who has taken up 
his abode among them, or perhaps hired a house in some more desir- 
able quarter, begins his labors. One by one the people are taught a 
little of God's Word and introduced into the outskirts of the great 
temple of divine truth. Wherever he can get an opportunity two or 
three persons are, for a few minutes, formed by him into a class to 
learn passages of Scripture and questions in the catechism — women and 
children by day, and men at night — and at set periods, especially on 
the Sabbath, as many as possible are assembled on the common, or in 
a private court, to engage in more formal worship. His work is em- 
phatically " precept upon precept, precept upon precept, line upon 
line, line upon line; here a little and there a little." 

In the course of time, perhaps, a small mud building is erected on 
the common, or a purchased lot — the people themselves putting up the 
walls and the Mission bearing the expense of the woodwork — and here 
the worker and the teacher can carry on their labors more conven- 
iently. Possibly, too, after a while, a few benches, a chair and a desk 
are put into this building ; and even a second room may be added, 
which can be occupied as a rest-house by the missionaries, and others, 
when they visit that part of the country on a tour of duty. For the 
Christian laborer himself also a permanent home is sometimes pro- 
vided. Thus the work advances step by step. 

Orientals (men) in company usually sit with their turbans on, and 
would feel very much ashamed to do otherwise ; but this custom has 
been abandoned by India Christians in public worship, out of defer- 
ence, no doubt, to Western ideas. If a member of the audience does 
not take off his turban we may be perfectly sure that he has never been 
baptized. A similar influence is at work on the Eastern practice of 
removing shoes (jutian, slippers, sandals) when people enter a house, 
and especially a house of worship. Formerly our people universally 
observed this custom and left their shoes at the entrance of the room 
where there was a religious service, considering it "holy ground." 
But latterly there has been a change in many places in regard to this 
matter, especially in the more "advanced" congregations. Village 
Christians, however, often retain the primitive practice. 

The forms and exercises of worship adopted in our work are essen- 
tially those which prevail among Presbyterians everywhere. They in- 



OUR FORMS OF WORSHIP DESCRIBED 265 

elude prayer, praise, Scripture reading, preaching, mutual exhortation, 
giving, and at times the sacraments of the New Testament — Baptism 
and the Lord's Supper ; but these exercises are, of course, varied in 
number, length and character by circumstances. 

Our " praise " consists in the singing of Psalms — some of which are 
in Western meter and set to Western music, and some in Oriental 
meter and set to Oriental music. The latter, which are called bhajans, 
are very popular, especially in country places ; but the former are used 
more in cities and old congregations. Our bhajans are in the Punjabi 
tongue ; our Western meter versions in Urdu. Sometimes people rise 
and stand daring the exercise of singing and sometimes they sit. 

The Scripture reading embraced in a regular religious service is 
usually performed by the leader, as it is at home. Preaching is also 
the work of the leader, except in prayer meetings and other confer- 
ences, when an opportunity is given for remarks by any member of the 
audience; but in promiscuous assemblies men alone have thus far 
availed themselves of this privilege. Sermons are almost universally 
spoken (not read) and are addressed to hearers as directly and forcibly 
as possible. As a general thing, too, they are less elaborate and formal 
than the sermons in America ; nor has any standard of length become 
fixed. 

Prayer, except when the Lord's prayer may be repeated in concert, 
is always free and extemporaneous ; and, when finished, it is often at- 
tested and strengthened by a sincere and general, but somewhat sup- 
pressed, cry of " Amen." No attitude in this exercise has yet become 
universal. Perhaps partial prostration — that is, kneeling with the fore- 
head touching, or almost touching, the floor — is as common as any 
other. It suits village people very well, as during worship they gener- 
ally sit on the floor anyhow; and besides it accords with both Hindu 
and Muhammadan customs. In older congregations and larger places 
seats are often provided for adults, especially the men, and sometimes 
for the whole audience. Under such circumstances standing is a com- 
mon attitude in prayer. This is the form adopted in the Sialkot 
church. But kneeling, either with the face towards the rear of the 
church (Methodistic style), or with the face towards the pulpit (Epis- 
copalian style), prevails in some congregations ; and sometimes, ac- 
cording to Western fashion, people sit and pray (if they pray at all) 
with, or without, their heads resting on the pews before them. Oc- 
casionally I have seen almost all of these attitudes assumed by different 



266 LlFF AND WORK IN INDIA 

individuals in the same congregation during the same exercise. The 
habit of offering up a silent prayer at the beginning, and again at the 
close, of a religious service seems to be universal among our people and 
comes to us apparently from British sources. As soon as a worshiper 
takes his place in the meeting he looks up to God for a blessing upon 
the exercises before him ; and again, after the benediction is pro- 
nounced, he sits for a minute or two and secretly pours out his heart 
to Heaven in thanksgiving and petition. People never rush out of 
church immediately after the preacher's voice ceases to be heard. It 
would be thought very rude and irreverent for any one to do so. 

Little peculiarity may be observed in the method of administering 
the sacraments of the church. Previous to the celebration of the 
Lord's Supper one or more preparatory services are usually held, and 
for some days or weeks beforehand the minds of intending communi- 
cants are turned towards this solemn ordinance. Common native 
bread, which is unleavened, and the juice of the grape, as extracted 
from raisins,* often furnish the emblems which are used in the sacra- 
ment itself, and of these the members partake as they sit in their 
places, separate from others, and receive them from the officers of the 
church. 

Fasting, as a religious exercise, has occasionally (but rarely) been 
appointed, either to prepare people for the observance of the Lord's 
Supper, or, in times of declension and providential distress, to secure 
the return of God's blessing; and sometimes, too, with manifestly 
happy results. This exercise is not only Biblical in its character but 
it is also familiar to Eastern people, especially Muhammadans, and its 
introduction into our usages seems perfectly natural. 

It has been stated that a local worker is expected to carry on a Sab- 
bath School among the people of his neighborhood. Sabbath Schools, 
indeed, have for thirty years or more been a special feature of our 
work of religious training. According to the Statistical Tables of 
1890, we had within our bounds 90 of the 116 Sabbath Schools es- 
tablished in the Punjab and 2959 of the 4331 pupils. At the close of 
1893 we reported 131 Sabbath Schools and 3162 scholars, and at the 
close of 1894, 99 Sabbath Schools and 2474 scholars. In large places, 
where secular education is more advanced and many teachers can be 
had, Sabbath Schools are conducted after Western models and some- 

* Common wine, whether fermented or unfermented, is an expensive article in 
India — too expensive for ordinary congregations. 



SABBATH SCHOOLS A AW DAY SCHOOLS 267 

times the International Series of Sabbath-School Lessons is used. 
The Rev. T. L. Scott for several years published these lessons with 
the sanction of Presbytery ; and recently an effort of a more ambitious 
character to provide helps was made by a regularly appointed commit- 
tee, though this effort was not continued very long. But the helps 
prepared by neighboring Missions have also been used in some places. 
In villages the local Christian worker has been the chief, and some- 
times the only, instructor; and, as many scholars are not able to 
read, much has depended upon his oral communications and his faith- 
fulness in catechetical drill. Our Sabbath Schools are composed 
mostly of Christians and the members of Christian families ; but, in 
cities especially, they are attended frequently by non-Christian 
scholars, and some of them may be classed as altogether missionary in 
their character. It may also be remarked here that, as a means of 
mutual assistance, we joined with others, December 10 and n, 1890, 
in forming a Punjab Auxiliary to the Indian S.-S. Union. 

The establishment of secular schools as an aid in our village work 
seems to be absolutely necessary. Our Christian converts in outlying 
points are usually without any education whatever, nor are they able 
to get any without our assistance. It becomes our duty, therefore, to 
teach them at least to read the Bible. 

Of village Primary Schools we have about 120 within the bounds of 
our field, with an aggregate of 4500 scholars. The curriculum of study 
followed in them is that which has been adopted by the government, 
extends over a three years' course and, when successfully pursued, 
qualifies the pupil for admission into an Upper Primary School, should 
he have an opportunity of attending one. Religious instruction is also 
given regularly and all available means are used to make the schools 
subservient to their great end — the moral and spiritual elevation of the 
Christian community. And, that they may become something of an 
evangelistic power, children of other religions also are often admitted 
as pupils. It has not been a very rare thing to see Hindus, Sikhs, 
Muhammadans, Chuhras and Christians all sitting side by side, read- 
ing Urdu or listening to a gospel story. 

But there are some drawbacks to this branch of work. 

One is the lack of good school-houses. In many cases, indeed, 
there are no school-houses at all. The pupils are taught under a tree 
or beside a mud wall, or on the open common, or in a private house. 

Another is the lack of Christian teachers. The demand for edu- 



268 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

cated Christians in purely evangelistic labor is so great that few are 
left for the work of secular instruction, and these few must receive 
comparatively high wages. Hence we have been compelled to em- 
ploy many non-Christian teachers — teachers who are not only unable 
to give religious instruction, but whose example, at least, is against us. 
Some of these teachers, indeed, by favoring pupils of their own faith, 
neglecting Christian children, and following other devices, have done 
what they could in a covert manner to defeat the great object which 
we have in view. 

Another drawback is the necessity of not only teaching Urdu, but of 
teaching it (and other branches) in the Urdu tongue, which to most of the 
scholars is almost a foreign language. The authorities of the Province 
exalt Urdu at the expense of Punjabi and make the former the chief 
vehicle of education, native literature and civil administration. 
Hence the latter is not recognized in any authorized course of study 
except that appointed for zamindari schools ; * and zamindari schools 
do not suit us, because we want our primary institutions to be prepara- 
tory to those that are higher. 

Urdu, or Hindustani as it is often called, must therefore be made 
as familiar to our pupils as their village dialect; and their effort to ac- 
quire it, and through it to acquire also all the other branches embraced 
in our school curriculum, becomes, as every one can easily see, a great 
task. 

And then the character adopted in teaching them Urdu is so hard 
to learn. Hindustani may be written or printed in one of three char- 
acters — the Persian, the Arabic, or the Roman. The Persian is simply 
the Arabic in a running hand, called Nastaliq. Both therefore give 
different forms of letters for the beginning, the middle and the end of 
words, while vowels for the most part must be guessed at. In Hindu- 
stani, too, three letters are added which are not found in the Persian 
tongue and seven not found in the Arabic. Persian Urdu, moreover, 
cannot be printed from regular type, and, being lithographed, partakes 
constantly of the variations which characterize handwriting. In cor- 
respondence, too, it is often written in a broken shorthand, called Shi- 
kasta. All these forms which must become familiar to the pupil, 
make the Arabic, and especially the Persian, character difficult to 
learn. Roman Urdu is the easiest of all, even to a native. An expe- 
rienced missionary says, " The time occupied in teaching an average 
* Farmers' Schools; see p. 165. 



rrrii""F.'\» ft, '111 



if 

Mb 




(269) 



270 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

child to read the Roman character would be about a month, whereas 
the Persian character, under the same conditions, needs a year." Ro- 
man Urdu presents only about one-third as many forms as either of 
the other characters; while vowels, as well as consonants, are repre- 
sented. Being printed with type, too, it is more uniform in its appear- 
ance than the Persian lithographed Arabic, and in writing it is seldom ab- 
breviated. More than this, it is less trying to the eyes and more legible. 
Yet the hardest of these characters for a learner (namely the Persian) is 
the one which is retained in the Punjab school system, as it is also in the 
civil service. This is due to the prestige given it under the Mu- 
hammadan rule, to the cheapness with* which it can be printed, and to 
the fact that the great mass of Urdu literature is found in this charac- 
ter. Many India missionaries, especially those who are located in 
Oude and the Northwest Provinces, would like to substitute the Ro- 
man for the Persian in their educational work, not only because it is 
easier, but because the knowledge of Roman alone would cut off the 
followers of Christ and many others from the corrupting influence of 
native writings — hardly anything but that which is distinctively Chris- 
tian being printed in Roman Urdu. But the tide of sentiment and 
power is against them, and as years roll on the difficulty of making 
any change becomes greater and greater. 

Other obstructions to the rapid and successful advancement of 
pupils in village schools up to the required standard are found in the 
age and the intellectual weakness of some of them, and in the irregu- 
larity of their attendance upon the instruction of their teacher. 

To remedy these various drawbacks, several expedients have been 
tried. One is the establishment of a Central School in every Mission 
District, where, under the immediate eye of the Superintendent and 
the teaching of a superior instructor, scholars nearing the close of 
the Lower Primary course might be taken for a time and receive special 
attention. Another is the appointment of a faithful, qualified inspec- 
tor for the Mission District whose duty it is to visit the schools fre- 
quently and keep them up to the required mark. Help has also been 
derived from submission to the examination of a local government in- 
spector, from whom official certificates can be had at the end of the 
third year. This has a specially stimulating effect on teacher and 
scholars, and, besides, lays the foundation for a grant-in-aid from public 
funds ; but, of course, whatever objections may be urged against gov- 
ernment help in other cases may also be urged against it in this case. 



PANCHA YA TS 271 

Of other local agencies established for the improvement of the peo- 
ple, pa?ichayats and zenana missionary societies may be mentioned. 

The latter are few in number and have not yet developed into a 
force of any great power; but they are progressing and will eventually, 
no doubt, be very helpful to the female members of the church.* 

Panchayats\ are local ruling committees, composed of the heads of 
the people, in imitation of similar bodies among the Hindus. They 
were sanctioned by the Mission in 1891, with the design of aiding dis- 
cipline and training men for the eldership, and are found in some 
parts of our field. Their work is to watch over their respective Chris- 
tian communities and exercise a sort of civil as well as ecclesiastical 
control among them — trying cases of wrong doing and imposing fines 
or other penalties, according to their judgment of what would be right. 

Some doubt the expediency of this arrangement. They dislike its 
encroachment upon the functions of both the State and the Church, 
and its confusion of the temporal and the spiritual penalties which 
these authorities respectively impose. They fear, too, that it may 
lead to the assumption by a panchayat of the powers of a Session and 
to its virtual, if not actual, determination of the question, Who have 
a right to participate in the sealing ordinances of the church? They 
fear also that, by thus establishing a substitute for the Session, the 
work of regular church organization will be postponed instead of 
hastened. Better in their opinion ordain elders and form Sessions as 
soon as possible for purposes of ecclesiastical government (as the 
Apostle Paul did) and not foist upon our people a Hindu device, in- 
volving similar power and requiring apparently similar qualifications. 
However this may be, panchayats are an established fact, and their aim 
at least is to help forward the work of Christian training. 

Of course where congregations are regularly organized a readjust- 
ment of the various local agencies employed in the edification of 
Christians takes place. Instead of the local mission agent comes the 
pastor, or the stated supply, and instead of \X\q panchayat the divinely 
authorized church court. The Sabbath School and the missionary so- 
ciety also become arms of the church proper, and even the parish 
school may be subjected to pastoral oversight. 

As a sub-superintendent, too, the ordained minister, whether settled 

* See pp. 129-132. 

f Courts of five or more — from the word panch> which means five. (Pronounced 
funck-i-ut.) 



272 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

or not, may be made responsible for work in a large number of un- 
organized centers surrounding his place of residence. These it be- 
comes his duty to visit as often as possible; and over all the inferior 
agents and agencies located there he is expected to exercise a certain 
amount of authority. He is also required to preach as often as pos- 
sible in every part of his little "diocese," examine candidates for ad- 
mission to the church and, whenever he thinks proper, administer the 
ordinance of baptism. Where an ordained minister is not available, 
this work of sub-superintendence is often performed by a licentiate, or 
a high-class catechist — but, of course, without the liberty of baptizing 
converts. 

It should be noted here, too, that, although our Christian women 
are largely accessible to men in their work of Christian instruction, 
sometimes female agents also are employed locally as zenana workers 
and Bible readers, and that they do much among their own sex in the 
different villages, and circles of villages, to supplement the labors of 
male Christian agents. 

Finally, over and above all these influences, comes the work of the 
superintendent (who is generally a missionary), of the foreign ladies, 
and of those native helpers who may be attached, temporarily or 
otherwise, to their general staff. 

These may take a run out from the headquarters of the Mission Dis- 
trict to some part of their field, and spend a short time there, or they 
may make a regular tour, as we have already indicated, in describing 
evangelistic operations ; * and, wherever they go, they will generally 
be met not only by the local laborers of the village itself, but also by 
the sub-superintendent and any others who may in any sense be re- 
sponsible for the work there. 

The task falling to these higher officers as they go out among the 
native Christians is varied in its character. 

First of all, it comprehends the duty of inspection. Schools, cate- 
chumens, the people generally, must be examined and their progress 
noted ; rolls of day schools, Sabbath Schools, baptized adults, baptized 
infants and inquirers must be scrutinized, corrected or purged ; reports 
of work done, and of the condition of things generally, must be heard. 

Cases of discipline must also be attended to; inquirers must be 
taught ; candidates for baptism must be examined and received into 
the church ; sites for school-houses, churches and rest-houses must be 

* See pp. 185-195. 



MONTHLY MEETINGS AND LI1ERATURE. 273 

selected or purchased; arrangements must be made for building; 
preaching, zenana work and instruction of all kinds must be kept up 
as continuously as possible during the sojourn of the party ; the Lord's 
Supper, perhaps, must be dispensed ; everything in fact must be done 
while they are present which will tend to edify the people and benefit 
the cause. 

Every month, too, in some Mission Districts, a general meeting of 
all the workers (male or female) is held by the mission, or the zenana, 
superintendent, not only for the purpose of giving them their wages, 
but also for the purpose of hearing their reports, approving or disap- 
proving their plans, correcting their mistakes and guiding their future 
labors. And sometimes, in cases of emergency, a local worker, or sub- 
superintendent, will make a special report of difficulties, by mail or in 
person, to his or her superior, and, if possible, secure such action as 
may be necessary to provide a remedy. 

Thus it will be seen that the machinery is complicated and that the 
appliances are many and varied which we have used for the purpose 
of training Christ's people and bringing them up to a higher condition 
of religious life and work. It will also be seen that our methods are 
largely autocratic in their nature and bear a closer likeness to- Episco- 
palianism, or rather to the arrangements of the India Civil Service, 
than to Congregationalism or Presbvcerianism. Even the sealing or- 
dinances of the church (Baptism and the Lord's Supper) are dispensed 
frequently, not under the direction and superintendence of ecclesias- 
tical courts, but according to the will of the officiating minister alone # 
This at the outset of missionary operations is no doubt necessary, but 
its continuance beyond the limits of necessity has a retarding rather 
than an advancing influence. It hinders the development of autonomy 
in the native church and checks the progress of republican Presbyte- 
rianism. It is to be hoped, however, that church organizations will be 
established more rapidly in the future than they have been in the past 
and that Sessions, Presbyteries and Synods will be allowed to do their 
own appropriate work.* 

To Christian literature as a means of general edification only allu- 
sions have heretofore been made, nor will much be said in regard to it 
now, because occasion will be given hereafter in another connection")" 
for its consideration as a whole. It is simply necessary to state here 
that, notwithstanding the illiteracy of our people, papers, tracts and 

*See pp. 138, 139. f See Chapter XXV; also pp. 184, 185. 

18 



274 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

books have had an important place, and doubtless will in the future 
have a still more important place, in the work of advancing their in- 
telligence, piety and usefulness. 

Of Christian melas (or conventions) and Christian villages nothing 
has been said heretofore, because they have not been employed much 
by us as a means of developing fraternal or spiritual life among our 
people. But a few words in regard to their character may not be out 
of place. 

A Christian mela is much like an old-fashioned Methodist camp- 
meeting. Christians from all sides meet in some previously selected 
locality ai}d for one, two or more days spend their time in social inter- 
course and religious worship — bringing their provisions and their Psalm 
books with them. That such meetings, occasionally held and properly 
conducted, do good, there is no doubt. They develop a sense of 
brotherhood, strengthen confidence in the stability of the Christian 
cause, create enthusiasm for the spread of the gospel, advance Scrip- 
ture knowledge, deepen piety and by their size make a marked im- 
pression upon the world around. Of a mela, held May 24, 1894, in 
the Gurdaspur District, at which 150 persons, or about one-fourth of 
the Christians of the District, were present, Mr. Caldwell says, " This 
gathering has done much to incite the spirit of self-support. A few 
have declared independence and are no longer under the direct con- 
trol of the higher castes." 

In this connection, too, it might be remarked that, through our 
Presbyterial system, a good opportunity is presented, from time to 
time, for holding such conventions. As Presbyterians are required to 
meet regularly for ecclesiastical business, so, without much extra trouble, 
the common people might then be collected together for purposes of 
religious edification. Even the proceedings of Presbytery itself might 
be utilized to promote the same great end. 

In favor of the policy of collecting our baptized people into particu- 
lar localities and establishing Christian villages or settlements, we can- 
not say so much. Only one project of the kind has been attempted 
within our bounds — that of Scottgarh, near Zafarwal. But this has not 
proved much of a " success ; " nor, as far as can be ascertained, has the 
Scotch Mission experiment at Sialkot, nor the Church Mission move- 
ment at Clarkabad. One difficulty is the expense involved in such 
attempts to build up independent Christian communities. Another is 
the trouble connected with their management. A third is the failure 



DRAWBACKS TO CHRISTIAN TRAINING 275 

to discover among Christians, huddled together in this way, any more 
signs of religious advancement than among others. But the greatest 
objection of all, perhaps, is the fact that under such circumstances 
Christians exercise less influence over the ungodly than they would in 
a more scattered condition. Better, if possible, for new converts to 
live in the families and in the neighborhoods where they have been 
brought up. There they can help to spread the gospel and, while in 
the world, show that they are not of it. The leaven has a chance to 
do its appropriate work. In the case of high-caste converts and Mu- 
hammadans it may be necessary to accept that segregation which is 
forced upon them by their former friends and give them shelter for a 
time on Mission compounds ; but even this phase of the policy of the 
aggregation of Christians has developed manifold evils and in many 
instances has been severely and justly condemned. The compound as 
well as the village system only helps to multiply and intensify the re- 
stricting evils of caste.* 

Besides the drawbacks to successful Christian training which have 
already been mentioned incidentally in the course of our narrative, 
many other hindrances to this work are worthy of notice. One is the 
lack of natural talent on the part of many of the people. This affects 
their acquisition and retention of knowledge, as well as their culture in 
many ways. Another is their poverty. More wealth would secure 
them more leisure and more means of self-improvement. Another is 
the failure, thus far, to establish the Sabbath as a recognized Christian 
institution, and the dependence of these people for employment upon 
persons who do not value the sacredness of God's holy day. Another 
is the lack of interest on the part of some of our professed Christians. 
There are idlers, mischief-makers, obstructors and even traitors in the 
camp itself. Besides there is the opposition and persecution .of out- 
siders. Thus many of our people are hindered in their efforts for good 
and some are made to stumble. The proselytism which has been 
carried on by the Romish Propaganda, the Plymouth Brethren, and 
others, has also had its deleterious effects upon many besides those who 
were actually decoyed away from our fold. The imperfection of those 
agents, too, upon whom we have been dependent for the application of 
our methods and the operation of our machinery, ought not to be over- 
looked ; nor in making an estimate of the damage springing from this 
source should we except what has arisen from our own weakness. In- 
* See pp. 201, 223-225. See also Note 5, p. 416, 



276 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



ternal strife and division may also be mentioned as fruitful sources of 
spiritual harm and especially that lack of unity and sympathy which 
for a few years has existed between foreign and native workers. 

However, in summing up the results of our work in training the 
Christian masses, the writer feels assured that, notwithstanding all 
drawbacks and hindrances, much has been done. Thousands of people 
have learned to read the Bible. Multitudes have been taught passages 
of Scripture and the fundamental principles of our holy religion. 
Hundreds of homes have been consecrated by the erection of a family 
altar. Whole communities have been brought to prize the house of 
God and the ordinances of the church. Scores of common people have 
taken pleasure in the work of exhortation and soul-saving. Many have 
been strengthened in faith to resist temptation or bear persecution. 
The entire Christian community has exhibited a slow but gradual and 
general rise in moral and spiritual character above the surrounding 
population. And instances are not uncommon where belief in Christ 
has been known to sustain the departing spirit of a poor native while 
passing through the waves of Jordan to the shores of the Promised Land. 

But other influences have been at work in improving the condition of 
our people, and other good results can be named, besides those which 
have heretofore been mentioned. Of these it will be our privilege to 
speak in the next chapter. 






Mi 




HILL WATER-CARRIER. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



HIGHER TRAINING OF CHRISTIANS— I 

Its Necessity — Means Employed — Central Schools — The Christian Training Insti- 
tute, its History, Character and Results — The Girls' Boarding School — The 
Theological Seminary — Why Greek and Hebrew Should Be Taught Theo- 
logical Students in India. 

HE influences referred to at the close of the last 
chapter are those which are brought to bear more di- 
rectly upon a select portion of our people, by means of 
which these few are advanced to a higher stage of secular 
education and Christian culture than that of the common mass. 

Such training becomes an absolute necessity in missionary work for 
several reasons: — first, in order to set an example of methods and re- 
sults which will stimulate the native Christians generally to higher at- 
tainments and lead them to make a personal effort in that direction ; 
secondly, to provide the means of superior culture to those of the peo- 
ple who may be able, partly or wholly, to pay for it ; thirdly, to pre- 
pare the agents through whom lower, as well as advanced, training may 

(277) 




278 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

be accomplished ; and finally, to give the Christian community a 
standing in higher social circles which will help forward the great 
work of universal evangelization. 

Each Mission, too, must take its share of this burden. Even if it 
were perfectly fair to throw the whole of the trouble and the expense 
of this work upon others, and even if other Missions could be found 
ready to assume it, the result of such a course would be injurious at 
home. Each field has its own peculiar necessities and these can be 
met best on the ground itself by home agencies. For harmony's sake 
alone it is not desirable that the sons and the daughters of our well- 
to-do people be educated under the somewhat diverse influences of 
neighboring Missions ; while as for catechists and other Christian 
laborers, those whom we get from other fields are usually less acquainted 
with our wants and less satisfactory in their work than those who are 
brought up and trained among ourselves. 

The means which we have used for purposes of higher training are 
the following : — advanced schools, schemes of private study, conven- 
tions of various kinds, church courts, panchayats,* sermons and lectures, 
and religious literature. 

Of advanced schools which we have established, having this end 
in view, the Christian Training Institute, the Girl's Boarding School 
and the Theological Seminary may be mentioned as the most im- 
portant; but our High Schools, whose primary object is evangelistic, 
have also been utilized for this purpose, while Central Schools and 
Medical Classes have accomplished something in the same direction. 

Central Schools in Mission Districts have already been referred to as 
a means of completing work imperfectly done in village Primary 
Schools. f But occasionally they have been used to carry children 
forward into the Upper Primary ; and now that the Christian Train- 
ing Institute has been raised to the grade of a High School, it is 
probable that they will be utilized more than they have been heretofore 
to prepare pupils for entrance into the Middle Department of the 
Institute, and that the Upper Primary of the latter will vanish 
altogether. 

This School (The Christian Training Institute) was begun by the 
Sialkot Presbytery J in the summer of 1881 and is located at Sialkot. 

*Seep. 271. f See p. 270. 

Jin 1887 the management of the school was transferred to the Mission; and at 
that time also a special Board of Directors was appointed. 



THE CHRISTIAN TRAINING INSTITUTE 279 

For many years previously such a school had been desired ; but the 
growing needs of the Theological Seminary and the work generally 
then absolutely demanded it, and the funds received from what is 
called the Stewart legacy then for the first time gave complete assur- 
ance of its pecuniary support.* At that time, too, the brethren of 
the field had the prospect of help from one who was specially called 
from America to take charge of the school and thus relieve them of 
a work which, without such help, might have unduly increased their 
burdens. 

The school was organized on our old compound at Sialkot ; but a 
new and better location, three miles north, was procured for it from 
the Ladies' Association of the Church of Scotland in the summer of. 
1882. On this property, which contains eleven or twelve acres of 
land, was erected by Mr. John Inglis, in the early days of the British 
occupation of the Punjab, a large house, which was the home of the 
Deputy Commissioner of the District at the time of the mutiny, and, 
after its transfer to the Ladies' Association of the Church of Scotland, 
the seat of the Girls' Orphanage. To the improvements already 
found there others were added by us during the year 1883 — a house 
for the Head Master, another for unmarried, and a third for mar- 
ried students — and in the early part of October of that year the in- 
stitution was moved to that compound. 

Shortly afterwards, too, a large well was dug and a second house for 
unmarried scholars was built ; but, as the school was small at first, and 
several vacant rooms in our large dwelling, together with the shade of 
several umbrageous trees, furnished abundant room for class recita- 
tions, and differences of opinion in regard to the location and the 
character of additional buildings existed at any rate in the Presbytery, 
no decided effort to erect the main structures required by the institu- 
tion, as it advanced, was made for several years. 

Finally, on the 26th of December, 1887, ground was broken for the 
foundation of the chief building of the Institute, and in March, 1889, 
it and its companions were reported to be virtually completed. These 
are four in number — all of brick and one-storied — so joined together 
at the corners that they enclose a large, well-protected quadrangle 
(court) where the boys may play, sleep, eat or study, as occasion re- 
quires. The front building, which is used for recitations and general 
meetings, is 140 feet long, while in width and height it gradually be 

* See pp. 70, 71. 



280 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

comes larger towards the center, where its width is 58 feet and its 
height about 35 feet. It covers an area of perhaps 32 square rods. 
In this are a central hall and six recitation rooms, while the veranda 
which encircles the whole irregular front provides separate, cozy nooks 
for many additional classes. The buildings flanking this on the right 
and left of the quadrangle mentioned are dormitories, each containing 
two large rooms, between which is a small room for the monitor. The 
rear building contains the kitchen, the store-rooms, the library and a 
temporary hospital. This structure and the dormitories all face the 
central court and have verandas in front, while their outer- wall win- 
dows are ten or twelve feet above the floor. Thus the privacy is per- 
fect. Should need require it the amount of accommodation given 
might be easily doubled by the addition of second stories to the rear 
buildings. 

Col. G. Newmarch, of the Royal Engineers,* who was then located 
at Sialkot as Executive Engineer, kindly drew the plans of these 
buildings and gratuitously rendered us great service during the course 
of their erection ; but some suggestions were received from different 
members of the Mission besides the writer, while the latter not only 
superintended the whole work, but took occasion to introduce minor 
improvements where convenience or economy seemed to demand them. 
A Muhammadan, named Umr Bakhsh, was the chief overseer {??iistari), 
and Bhola, his assistant. 

The native Christians are very proud of the Christian Training In- 
stitute, as thus completed. In their farewell address to the superin- 
tendent when he left India in February, 1892, they called it a beauti- 
ful and magnificent building and said that it had "no equal of its 
kind in the Punjab" — that is, none equal which had been erected 
solely for the benefit of the Christians. 

The internal economy of the school has been managed so as to 
change the condition of the living of the pupils as little as possible 
and make it easy for them to return again to village life and work. 
Married students, of whom there was a large percentage in the early 
days of the institution, have been given a monthly scholarship and 
have been required to maintain their households with it as they would 
at home. At first, too, unmarried pupils received a scholarship and 
were compelled to cook their own food and manage for themselves ; 
but this arrangement did not prove very successful, because of the in- 
* Since 1888 he has been promoted to a higher rank. 



COURSE OF STUDY IN THE INSTITUTE 2S1 

experience of the boys and because it interfered with their studies. 
Hence a change was made; and, since 1887, food and clothing, in- 
stead of money, have been provided directly through the authorities 
of the school. 

The course of study heretofore pursued in the Institute extends over 
a period of five years,* accords with the government scheme, and in- 
cludes both that of the Upper Primary and the Middle departments — 
two years being required in the former and three in the latter. Down 
to November, 1885, what is called the Vernacular Course was followed. 
This embraces (besides the Urdu tongue; Persian, History, Geography, 
Physical Science, Algebra to the end of simple equations, Euclid to 
the end of the fourth book, and Mensuration — with Arabic and San- 
skrit optional. By request of the natives, however, the English Course 
was substituted for the Vernacular in the fall of 1885 and pursued for 
six years, when to my regret a return was made to the Vernacular. 
The English Course embraces less mathematics, but includes tuition in 
the English language. Judged by American standards, therefore, the 
secular instruction given in the Institute was about equal to that secured 
in one of our ordinary academies ; but two years more would be re- 
quired to fit a pupil for entrance upon the college course which has 
been established by the Punjab University. In March, 1889, the Pres- 
bytery petitioned the Mission to raise the Institute to an Entrance 
standard and establish a higher grade for boys whose parents could 
pay fees ; but the petition at that time was unsuccessful. In the fall of 
1893, however, the Mission not only resolved to reintroduce the Eng- 
lish course and substitute it in place of the Vernacular, but also virtu- 
ally granted Presbytery's request ; and, unless a new turn is taken 
within a short time, we may expect that in due season the Sialkot 
Training Institute will be a High School, preparing Christian pupils 
for entrance into College. This, in the writer's opinion, is a good 
move and will help materially to build up the native community in 
intellectual, social and spiritual power. 

Besides a course of secular studies, one of a religious character has 
also been pursued in the Institute — one period (about fifty minutes) 
being devoted each day to its recitations. This course embraces 
special studies in the Bible, Sacred and Profane History, Elements of 
Theology, and other subjects which may fit the pupils for usefulness as 
Christian laborers. The weekly prayer-meeting, a voluntary mission- 

* Lately this has been changed to six years so as to embrace more Bible study. 



282 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

ary society and bazar preaching, have also been utilized for practical 
drill in Christian work, and especially in the exercise of public speak- 
ing and exhortation ; while on the Sabbath religious services and a 
Sabbath School help forward the course of religious improvement. 

Pupils above a certain age and below a certain standard have not 
been allowed to take English, or to advance beyond the Upper Pri- 
mary ; but at the end of that time they have been formed (with others) 
into a Normal Class and for six months longer have been given special 
instruction in matters related to the work of teaching. Opportunity 
has also been furnished this class to get practical experience during 
that period in a Model School ; while the amount of their religious 
study has been doubled. At the close of this training, they go out as 
teachers and lower-class workers into the mission field. 

The wives and the daughters of the married students are formed into 
a special school of their own, taught to read, and given instruction in 
the Bible. Thus they become fitted for zenana work in the villages 
when they leave the Institute. 

Three missionaries have held the position of superintendent of the 
Christian Training Institute : Dr. Barr, during the first year, and since 
April, 1894; the writer, from the close of Dr. Barr's first administra- 
tion to the latter part of February, 1892 ; and Dr. McKee, from that 
time until April, 1894. During the summer of 1894, while Dr. Barr 
was in Kashmir, the Rev. T. L. Scott acted as manager in his place. 
While the Institute remained on the southern compound Miss McCa- 
hon had charge of the women's department. Since its removal to the 
present quarters this position has been generally held by the wife of 
the superintendent. * 

Five natives have occupied the post of chief Christian teacher in the 
Institute — the Rev. Jiwan Mai, from the beginning to August, 1884; 
David Charles, from September 2, 1884, to the summer of 1885 ; 
Amos, from the fall of 1885 to November, 1887 ; M. A. Thomas, from 
August, 1889, to the spring of 1892; and J. Isaac, from the fall of 
1887 to the present date, except during the time when Mr. Thomas 
was employed, when he took the second rank. All except Amos and 
J. Isaac, too, held the position of Head Master. The Rev. Jiwan Mai 
is the only one who was brought up and trained in our field. Amos 
came to us from the Methodist Episcopal Mission ; the rest, from the 
Church of England. Mr. Thomas was the best scholar of all and 
Amos the best exhorter ; but Mr. Mai was a good teacher and for 
* April, 1896, Rev. A. B. Caldwell became superintendent of the C. T. I. 




(283) 



284 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

general usefulness and integrity none stood higher than Mr. Isaac. 
While with me, the help of the last named was indispensable in the 
management of the pupils on the compound. Mention should also be 
made of Jawala, who acted as monitor and house-father for the boys 
from May i, 1884, to August 6, 1891. He was an honest, trustworthy 
old man and, although uneducated, did good service in his position. 

That the Christian Training Institute has been a great power for 
good in our field goes without saying. Up to April, 1894, about 370 
male and perhaps 60 female pupils had had their names upon its rolls ; 
while the actual attendance had risen from 19 the first session to about 
120 the last. Most of these scholars came to it from the village Chris- 
tian schools where they had passed the Lower Primary Standard and 
many of them were quite young in years. At the Institute they made 
advancement in spiritual as well as secular knowledge ; and, although 
some were disciplined for bad conduct, and even suspended, as many 
as twenty-five or thirty have been known to make a public profession 
of Christ during a single twelve-month. Many, indeed, took only the 
Normal Course, or, for various reasons, abandoned their studies before 
reaching the close of the Third Middle ; but those who left have gen- 
erally gone to swell the list of workers in our own and other Missions, 
or have made themselves useful in some secular occupation. Besides 
eight who had died, nine who were studying elsewhere and thirty-six 
whose location and business were not known to me, ninety-five other 
male pupils had left the Institute before I took my furlough in Febru- 
ary, 1892 ; and of these ninety-five, sixty-eight had been in Christian 
service and two in government employ; while thirteen were engaged 
in manual labor and ten were with their parents, and only two had 
apostatized. Several of the pupils, moreover, had become elders or 
students of theology and three soon afterwards became licentiates. 
And, now that the school is thoroughly established and has large 
classes, we may hope from it in the future still more important results. 

Similar work has been done for the female part of our Christian 
community by the Girls' Boarding School, which is also located at 
Sialkot. This was started by Miss McCahon as a Girls' Orphanage in 
February, 1879, when the Orphanage of the Ladies' Association of the 
Church of Scotland at Sialkot was closed, and four girls were returned 
to us whom we had been supporting in that institution. To these as a 
nucleus seven others were added the first year, three the second and 
three also the third — seventeen in all — of whom, however, seven for 



GIRLS' BOARDING SCHOOL 285 

various reasons had left, leaving ten as the total number in actual at- 
tendance at the close of 1 88 1. Of these, some were not orphans but 
daughters of the Christians, or others, who had sent them to the school 
for education. Hence the name of the Institution was for two years 
given as the Girls' Boarding School and Orphanage. But, as the lat- 
ter part of the name seemed to hinder its popularity and the great 
object of the school at any rate had changed so as to be more par- 
ticularly the training of the daughters of our Christians, it now began 
to be termed simply The Girls' Boarding School and that has been its 
designation ever since ; but day scholars, as well as boarders, are also 
admitted to its educational privileges. 

This institution has always been located on what is called our old 
(or South) Mission Compound at Sialkot. In January, 1887, a reso- 
lution was passed in the Mission to remove it to Gujranwala. A site 
was also then selected at that place ; and after the lapse of two and one- 
half years, the plan of a new building to be located there was prepared 
and adopted. But the inexpediency of such a change, which was 
maintained by some from the beginning, became evident to all and the 
resolution was rescinded in January, 1890. 

At first some old buildings and an enclosure perhaps twelve rods square 
were utilized for the school, but a new dormitory was erected in 1886, 
and in 1890 the court was enlarged so as to be double its former size, 
while improvements were added which increase the accommodation 
of the institution many fold and fit it admirably for the accomplishment 
of the end for which it was established. These consist of dormitories, 
offices, store-rooms, matron's quarters, cook and wash-houses, verandas 
and other structures, ranged around and facing the interior (Eastern 
fashion) and forming part of the bulwark by which the children are 
protected from outside interference — a high brick wall being erected 
to serve this purpose wherever a vacancy occurs in the exterior rampart 
of buildings. The northeastern corner of the rectangle is joined to the 
bungalow of the lady superintendent so that she can enter and leave 
the school, night or day, without exposure of any kind. Near the 
northwestern corner also, but a few feet outside, stands the bungalow 
which is used for recitations and public meetings of all sorts. This is 
a flat-roofed, one-storied, brick building, erected in regulation (Anglo- 
Indian) style — with a hall in the center and side-rooms for classes, and 
of course an abundance of veranda shade. It is the most expensive 
and showy part of the whole institution, and answers its purpose well. 



286 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

The control of the school has always been in the hands of the Mis- 
sion ; but, for two years at least, the Education Committee of Presby- 
tery took its examinations, and in the spring of 1887 a Board of ladies 
was appointed to supervise the whole work and report from time to 
time to the Mission itself. 

Miss McCahon, who founded the school, has had charge almost ever 
since; but Miss Gordon took her place while she was absent in Amer- 
ica on furlough, and several other ladies have at times either co- 
operated with her, or acted as temporary superintendents. 

Besides the lady superintendent and one or two Christian female 
teachers, it has been found necessary to employ other instructors also 
in secular branches ; and these have been usually non-Christian men. 
Little harm, perhaps, has heretofore arisen from this arrangement ; 
yet its incongruity in a school for Christian girls is undoubtedly more 
striking, especially to an Oriental, than that of the similar arrange- 
ment which exists in our boys' school ; and, while the time is anxiously 
looked for when the latter institution can successfully make a change, 
that day will be doubly welcome when in the former well qualified 
Christian teachers, and better still, Christian women, can take the place 
of Hindu and Muhammadan men.* 

Pupils often enter the Girls' Boarding School at a younger age and 
with less previous education than they do the Christian Training In- 
stitute. Hence the curriculum of study commences lower down. Nor 
has there been the same effort in the Girls' Boarding School to cling 
closely to the government scheme. Girls seldom go into government 
employ or into any service where a regular certificate would do them 
any good. Their sphere of action, in most cases, is expected to be 
the home and the neighborhood where they live. Our great aim then 
is to make them useful wives and mothers and zenana workers. Hence 
the English language has never been taught them, and their study of 
the Persian even has been regarded with disfavor ; while special stress 
has been laid upon their religious instruction. 

As in the Christian Training Institute, so in the Girls' Boarding 
School, an effort is made to train up the pupils in native style — ex- 
cepting of course its filth and its disorder f — so that when they return 

* See pp. 296, 297. 

f When pupils enter school they are universally required to pass through a course 
of cleansing before they become fully installed in their new life ; and sometimes it 
takes a good while to free them from the dirt and the vermin which come with them 



DRAWBACKS TO GIRLS' SCHOOLS 287 

to their village homes they may not be extravagant, or discontented, 
or unfitted for their life-work. Hence opposition has always been 
made to the use of English dress in school (especially the skirt) and to 
the adoption of any practice which would separate them unnecessarily 
from their country sisters, or which, on account of the expense, could 
not be kept up afterward. The food, the raiment, the furniture, the 
habits of the scholars, as far as practicable, are Punjabi. They eat 
without knives and forks, sit mostly upon the floor or upon the ever 
present and ever useful cha?'pai, and draw water from their well in 
native style. The girls, too, are required by turns to do the cooking 
and the housekeeping of the establishment. They must also make their 
own garments, and perform any other domestic duties that may fall to 
their lot. Even interference with studies is allowed rather than a 
training which would impair their usefulness at home, when they leave 
school. 

Girls' schools of all kinds in India, and especially boarding 
schools, labor under disadvantages which do not attach so much to in- 
stitutions established for the other sex. For one thing they are not so 
well attended as the boys' schools.* Parents are not usually as anxious 
for their daughters, as for their sons, to be educated. Why should 
they be ? They see no special worldly advantage in the education of 
the former; and in their eyes, if they are still heathen, girls at any rate 
are an inferior class — ''mere cattle," as they say. And even Chris- 
tian parents sometimes share this feeling to a considerable extent. 
Besides, parents are naturally more reluctant for their daughters to 
leave home to be educated than for their sons to do so. Moreover, 
the stimulus to study, experienced by girls in India while at school, is 
not as great as that experienced by boys. Fewer professions and 
avenues of business requiring education are open there to women than 
to men, and they do not feel the same necessity for being diligent and 
passing the prescribed examinations. And then marriage, which gen- 
erally closes their school life, usually takes place at an earlier age in 
the case of girls than in the case of boys. 

Notwithstanding these drawbacks, however, considerable progress 

as a part of their personal property. The same process, too, must be renewed every 
time they return to the institution from home, after vacations — which on that account, 
as well as others, are made as few as possible. 

* For the comparative proportion of boys and girls attending school in India, and 
in our own Mission field, see note, p. 175. 



288 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

has been made by our Girls' Boarding School. About one-half as many 
names are found upon its roll as upon that of the Christian Training 
Institute ; at least one in every five of the pupils reaches the Upper 
Primary; and almost all while at school become communing members 
of the church. Of those who leave the institution about one-sixth be- 
come paid laborers in zenana visitation ; about one-third are married 
by our Christian helpers and co-operate with them in their work ; 
while the remaining half settle among our ordinary members and become 
there a leavening and moulding influence — mostly for good.* Here- 
after, too, the fruits of labor in this institution will doubtless be far 
more abundant than they have been in the past. The enrollment of 
the school now is about twice what it was in 1888 and nearly three 
times what it was in 1885. 

Our third principal institution for the higher training of Christians 
is the Theological Seminary. This originated in the spring of the year 
1877, and, for some time was the only school of the kind among all 
the Presbyterians of India. .Having for its direct object the prepara- 
tion of candidates for the gospel ministry, it was started, and has all 
along been carried on, by our highest ecclesiastical court. Until Octo- 
ber, 1893, this was the Sialkot Presbytery. As the Synod of the Pun- 
jab, however, was formed at that time, our Seminary naturally, by the 
direction of the General Assembly, passed under the care of that body, 
by which it has ever since been managed through a Board of Directors. 
But for pecuniary support, as well as for the employment of its students 
during vacations, the institution is dependent upon mission funds. 
Missionaries themselves, too, and native ministers under the pay of 
the Mission, are employed as professors. Hence the Missionary As- 
sociation has much to do in carrying it on and can help or hinder its 
progress at pleasure. 

The first professors appointed were the Revs. J. S. Barr. D. D., 
Principal, Andrew Gordon, D. D., and G. L. Thakur Das. The last 

* In March, 1893, the following report was made : 

Number of pupils enrolled from the beginning 1 67 

" " " now in school 72 

" " " that have been in the Upper Primary 16 

" " " known to be dead 4 

" " " married to Christian workers 27 

" " " who have themselves been paid workers 15 

In the summer of 1893 tne ro ^ increased to 81, but by the close of that year was 
reduced to 67. June 29, 1895, ^5 pupils answered to their names at roll-call. 



THE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY 289 

named was released in January, 1880, and the Rev. S. Martin, D. D., 
appointed to take his place ; while Dr. Gordon about the same time 
ceased to take any part in the work of instruction. When the writer 
of these pages reached India in January, 1882, Dr. Barr also resigned 
his position and the former was regularly appointed to take his place 
— as the General Assembly of the year preceding evidently intended. 
After my return to America and the formation of the Synod, the Rev. 
J. P. McKee, D. D., was appointed a professor ; and, after his departure 
from India (in April, 1894), the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das was added to 
the staff of professors. 

The Seminary has always been located at Sialkot — first on the South 
Compound and afterwards at the Christian Training Institute. No 
special buildings, however, have been erected for its accommodation — 
those connected with the Institute having hitherto been thought suffi- 
cient to meet all necessary requirements. But the remainder of the 
Stewart Fund, so far as it goes, could be used when needed to provide 
for it better quarters in the future.* 

A nucleus for the library of the Seminary was obtained in 1882 from 
the gift of several hundred volumes, which for years had been accumu- 
lating in the hands of the Mission. This was increased a few years 
afterwards by the donation of seventy volumes from the United Presby- 
terian Board of Publication and by the purchase from time to time of 
new and second-hand books. In 1892 a case full of books and pam- 
phlets (244 volumes in all) was also presented to the institution by 
one of the professors. At present the number of volumes in the 
library is about 1000. These are mostly English books. 

It has been the aim of the managers of the Theological Seminary to 
combine as far as possible the theoretical with the practical— book in- 
struction with work in the field. Hence a course of four years was 
adopted and the vacations made long, so that the students could spend 
several months every year in mission work. This policy it was 
thought would train the students better, and also test their capabilities 
more fully, than a shorter course of longer sessions and less experi- 
ence. 

The curriculum of study pursued is, in its main features, that which 
Theological Seminaries adopt at home — embracing the original 
tongues of Scripture, theology, ecclesiastical history, Bible introduc- 
tion, apologetics, homiletics, church government, hermeneutics, and 

* See pp. 70, 71 and 279. 
19 



290 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

Biblical antiquities. Some differences, however, may be noted. 
First, we pay less attention there to the various Occidental errors in 
theology which have sprung up during the course of its development 
than is done in American Seminaries, and more attention to the errors 
which have arisen in India itself. Our apologetics, too, deals more 
with the false religions and philosophies of the East than with those 
of the West. Our course in ecclesiastical history, moreover, is less 
elaborate and less burdened with minutiae than that which is adopted 
in Europe and America. But more time is given in India than in 
America to the study of the Bible in the vernacular. We desire our 
students to be well acquainted with the fundamental facts and princi- 
ples and texts of Scripture. 

As for Greek and Hebrew, some difference of opinion and practice 
is found in India. One party would be contented with a very brief 
course in these languages, or with their expulsion from the Seminary 
curriculum altogether, thinking that what is known of these tongues 
by the missionaries is sufficient for all practical purposes in that coun- 
try. Others would give them a place at least as prominent as is given 
to them at home. 

To the latter class the writer belongs. We see that most of the theo- 
logical students and native preachers know little or nothing about 
English, and cannot therefore in ministerial work avail themselves of 
the help to be derived from English commentaries, while Urdu com- 
mentaries are few and imperfect — so that they absolutely need the 
advantage to be derived from direct access to the original words of 
inspired men. As the writer has said elsewhere:* "Were students 
well acquainted with English, so well acquainted that they could con- 
sult English commentaries, sermons and dictionaries with ease and 
satisfaction, they might make very fair preachers without knowing the 
Bible in the original tongues. But this they are not. The only 
books they can consult are the few, imperfect ones which have been 
written in the vernacular or translated into it. Confined to these, 
their minds must remain dwarfed, their knowledge circumscribed, and 
their preaching of the most barren and least varied character. To 
remove this defect a knowledge of Greek and Hebrew is the best 
remedy. This will bring them to the fountain-head — to the center 
whence all good commentators and preachers must make their de- 
parture. No other attainment will give more fruitfulness to their think- 
*See the Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. XVI, p. 395. 



NATIVES IN BIBLE TRANSLATION 291 

ing, or more certainty to their convictions, as they discourse on God's 
Word." 

And then a thorough acquaintance with the original tongues of 
Scripture is one thing that is necessary to the acquisition of that self- 
confidence and that independence of foreign missionaries without 
which the native church cannot rise to her proper dignity and effectu- 
ally carry on her own work. 

Especially is it needed in order that she may secure a thoroughly 
good translation of the Bible. When the question of revising the 
present Urdu version of the Scriptures was before the Punjab Bible 
Society in the spring of 1892 and a resolution was passed requesting 
the British and Foreign Society, which had assumed the management 
of the work,* to appoint on the translating committee " if possible," 
one or more natives, the writer at least, who was present, felt deeply 
humiliated. Was it at all doubtful, he asked himself, whether natives 
suitably qualified could be found for this work ? If so, was it not our 
fault as missionaries ? If, after one hundred years of labor, and the 
acquisition of a Protestant Christian community of five or six hundred 
thousand souls, " possibly" none among them might be secured, who 
were at least as well fitted as Englishmen for this purpose, has there 
not been some serious defect in our policy? Are the Greek and He- 
brew tongues any more foreign to the former than to the latter, and 
are not the former better acquainted with their own language? Ought 
we then to think for a moment of going ahead in the preparation, or 
the revision, of a version for the use of the common people without 
native help? Ought not, in fact, the business to be put mainly into 
native hands ? Until this can be done, ought not the present version 
to be allowed to stand as it is? Is it not almost a waste of time and 
funds to employ foreigners specially for the purpose of revision ? 
Have not all the great and abiding Bible translations of the world, 
such as the English and the German, emanated from natives of the 
countries for which they were made? Can we expect India to be an 
exception to the general rule ? Surely then our Theological Semi- 
naries ought to adopt such a course of study as will early secure the 
only result in this matter which can be at all satisfactory.")" 

*See pp. 92, 93 and 300-303. 

f In justice to all parties it should be noted here that some natives were eventually- 
appointed upon the Bible Revision Committee, although they are not the leading 
element. The chief reviser is an Anglo-Indian, the Rev. H. E. Perkins. 



292 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

And very easy, too, is it for the natives of India to learn Hebrew 
and Greek, especially if their minds have been trained to study as 
high up, at least, as the Middle standard. Far easier, in my opinion, is 
it for them to do so than it is for Englishmen or Americans — partly 
because these tongues bear some affinity to their own, and partly 
because the genius of the people seems (now, at least) to lie more than 
ours in the direction of the acquisition of language. Certain it is, at 
any rate, that some students at our Seminary displayed remarkable 
aptitude for this branch of study. Three read the Bible through in 
Hebrew and Greek either before they left the institution or shortly 
afterwards. 

One difficulty which we experience in our theological institutions is 
the lack of suitable text books. In several departments oral instruc- 
tion alone can be given — either in the form of. original lectures or 
translations of English books. It will be some time, no doubt, before 
a sufficient number of suitable publications can be prepared and issued 
in the vernaculars of the country to meet all the requirements of such 
a school. Students who read English well of course do not feel this 
deficiency so much as others. 

But there are few such students. Our standard of secular education 
in the admission of pupils has never been higher than what is called 
the Middle,* or its equivalent ; and this does not necessarily include 
any English at all ; and what it may include of this tongue is, at best, 
but a smattering. From present indications, too, there is a possibility 
that even so. high a standard as this may not be retained. At a late meet- 
ing of the managers of the school it was agreed to admit students of a 
lower grade, and as a matter of fact the first-year class of the Semin- 
ary during the summer of 1894, it is reported, was largely filled with 
men who have advanced no higher than the Upper Primary. 

If the object of this change is to make the Seminary a Training 
School for Christian workers, as well as ordained ministers, it may be 
the means of doing good ; but if its design is to lower the standard 
of the Christian ministry, in the opinion of the writer it is a great 
mistake, and unless soon modified, will certainly entail injury and degra- 
dation upon the native church. But, whatever the end or the pro- 
priety of the change, as long as the present arrangement lasts our 
remarks in regard to the need of suitable text books for the institu- 
tion will only be emphasized by its existence. 

* That is, within two years of entering the Freshman Class at College. See p. 164, 



RESLLTS OF SEMINARY TRAINING 



293 



The number of pupils in our Seminary has never been very large, 
chiefly because few men were admitted under the care of the Presby- 
tery as students of theology. The reasons why more were not thus 
admitted can be given more appropriately hereafter.* 

That our Seminary has done good, however, will not be denied. 
All except two of the native ministers that have been ordained within 
our bounds since 1880 have received the most or the whole of their 
theological education within its walls, as have also all our licentiates, 
and several other persons who are useful laborers in our own and 
neighboring Missions. In the future, too, with proper encouragement 
and under proper management, it ought to be a means of far greater 
good than it has been in the past. Indeed, the hope of the India 
church lies largely in the increased growth and efficiency of its theo- 
logical institutions. Without a well qualified native ministry the 
church will always be crippled, and without Seminaries this ministry 
cannot be supplied. 

*See Chapter XXVIII. 




CHAPTER XXV 




HIGHER TRAINING OF CHRISTIANS— II 

Schools of Neighboring Missions — Success of Higher Education Among our Peo- 
ple — Schemes of Private Study — Summer Schools — Religious Conventions — 
Monthly Meetings — Church Courts and their Drawbacks — Religious Litera- 
ture — Bible Translations — How Made and Circulated — The Urdu Version — 
The Punjabi — The Psalms in Meter — Bhajans — Indian Lyric Poetry — Cate- 
chisms — Other Books, Tracts and Newspapers — Theology — History — Book of 
Discipline — Summary of Vernacular Christian Literature. 

HILE the institutions already described are the chief ones 
upon which we have depended for the higher education of 
Christians, some help has also been derived from our High 
Schools, where a few of our boys, for local reasons, have 
studied up to the Middle standard and even beyond it — from the Medical 
Class at Sialkot, where several women and girls have learned to be 
nurses, apothecaries and medical practitioners of a primary grade — 
and from schools of other Missions, where certain of our high-class 
workers have thought it best to send their sons and daughters. Occa- 
sionally, too, some of our people have depended largely upon the gov- 
ernment schools of their neighborhood for the education of their chil- 
dren. 

While claiming that our institutions of learning have all done great 
good, it must be admitted that the various efforts which we have put 
forth to produce a large class of educated people among our native 
converts have not been crowned with very flattering success. Al- 
though thousands have learned to read and write a little, and hundreds 
have passed the Lower Primary standard, not more than 400 
of our Christians perhaps have passed the Upper Primary and not 
more than sixty of these the Middle School standard, while not more 
than ten have reached College Entrance, two the degree of F. A. and 
two the degree of B. A. All, too, who have reached Entrance or 
(294) 



WHY A SCARCITY OF WELL-EDUCATED CHRISTIANS? 295 

any of the more advanced grades, have, with one exception, been edu- 
cated for their higher degrees at schools outside of our own field and 
most of them come to us from other Missions — although, to offset this, 
it may be remarked that two or three persons now in other fields 
reached a high standard while with us. 

Why this scarcity of well-educated men and women among our peo- 
ple? it may be asked. Scores of Hindus and Muhammadans are going 
up every year from our schools to the University examinations and 
many of them pass on into college classes and take the highest degrees. 
Why can we not say the same of our Christians also? 

For one thing, it may be replied, in a general way, that all the 
causes heretofore mentioned, which operate against our various schools, 
have helped to diminish the number of that class of persons from 
whom alone we can expect any to seek the higher degrees. 

The pupils, too, who might go on, in many cases do not want ad- 
vanced education, but prefer entering early the field of practical work. 
Some have little ambition ; some are married men and have children, 
and wish to do something for the support of themselves and their fam- 
ilies; some perhaps desire to get married ; some see the need of labor- 
ers in God's vineyard and hasten to supply the want as far as they 
can ; some are pressed to do so by outside influence. Thus from one 
motive or another, as Dr. Martin says, "they leave school so soon to 
get mission employment that they do not obtain half an education." 
We felt this much in the Christian Training Institute. 

And then pupils who would continue their studies if they could, 
have not in most cases the opportunity or the pecuniary means that 
are needful for this purpose. Those Hindus and Muhammadans who 
secure a good education generally live in the neighborhood of High 
Schools and have sufficient leisure and money to gratify their desire 
for more learning. Our people are scattered through the country and 
are exceedingly poor. Very rarely can they follow the example thus 
set before them by the heathen. 

Nor has the Mission hitherto felt disposed to give them much as- 
sistance in the matter. Her efforts have been confined chiefly to the 
preparation of men for evangelistic work, and few have been wanted 
for this purpose of a higher grade than the Middle standard,* which 
until lately was the limit set for theological students. Indeed, some 
members of the Mission have not been very anxious that young men 
* Two years below entrance into college. 



296 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

should even reach this standard and enter the ministry. They have 
desired rather a large number of low-grade workers for employment in 
villages and obscure places. These are less expensive and more bid- 
dable than persons of superior education, and can get nearer the com- 
mon people. They have less aspiration also, and are, it is thought, less 
disposed than highly paid and highly trained laborers to seek after 
power and independence and to give trouble to their missionary su- 
periors. With some, therefore, it has been a matter of rejoicing, rather 
than otherwise, to find Christian young men leaving the Christian 
Training Institute and our other mission schools before they have 
finished their course. And, as for the advancement of any beyond the 
Middle, until lately no provision whatever was made for the purpose. 
Christians who had studied up to the Entrance standard or above it 
were hardly wanted by the Mission in ordinary evangelistic or pastoral 
work, and what were needed as Head Masters and helpers in High 
Schools could be readily obtained from other Missions, almost all of 
whom have surpassed us in this department of missionary effort. 

"Our Mission," said Dr. McKee, in 1894, "has never encouraged 
high education among the native Christians. This has been so marked 
a feature of our policy that our most intelligent members have invari- 
ably sent their children outside of our field to be educated, with the 
result that they are generally lost to our church. We have not a 
single minister who is educating his children in our Mission." * 

And similar to this is the testimony of Sophia E. Johnson, M. D., 
one of our laborers at Jhelum, who, in a paper read before the Con- 
vention of the Women's General Missionary Society of the United 
Presbyterian Church of North America, held in Jersey City during the 
month of May, 1895, an( ^ afterwards published, f says, " The time will 
come — nay, has come — when the zenana medical missionary will have 
to employ heathen assistants ; as our missionaries are obliged to do in 
the Boys' Mission Schools and even in our own Christian Girls' Board- 
ing School. 

" Perhaps you will ask, Why is this so ? One reason is because we 
have been afraid to go ahead with our Christian boys and girls for fear 

*The aristocratic feeling of the parents has also had much to do in producing this 
result. Our own schools for Christians are largely filled with pupils of low-caste 
origin. We have no institution intended specially for children of the "best fami- 
lies," as some of the schools of our neighbors profess to he. 

fin the Women's Missionary Magazine for August, 1895, pp. 7, 8. 



tilGIIER EDUCATION OF CHRISTIANS 297 

of spoiling them, while we have spent, and are spending, our energy, 
money and time in educating the heathen, who now form three-fourths 
of the staff of teachers in every Mission School in our Mission. 
Hardened souls as they are, they like the missionaries for what they 
can get out of them, but they don't come to Christ."* 

Although the Rawal Pindi College is only two years old, and a 
movement to take over under our management the Bhera School has 
been recently originated, and both are almost exclusively schools for 
the heathen, it is nevertheless gratifying to find that our past mistake 
in regard to the higher education of Christians has been partly recog- 
nized and that provision has been made for its correction in the near 
future by the elevation of the Christian Training Institute to the dig- 
nity of a High School. Not only should we be able to supply our 
highest institutions with a few Bible instructors but also with a suffi- 
cient number of Christian teachers to fully man them in every depart- 
ment, so as to obviate the necessity of employing heathen helpers. 
Moreover, a few native ministers of superior grade are needed as 
special champions of the truth and mission superintendents. f And a 
good thing it would be if we had more representatives in government 
employ and in business circles. By such additions to the higher ranks 
of our Christian population the whole cause would be benefited and 
Zion would be made to arise and shine. The glaring inconsistency of 
our educating Hindus and Muhammadans to advanced degrees and 
neglecting the people of God would also be removed. And thus, too, 
one of the great causes of complaint made by our native Christians 
would be taken away. 

But besides regular institutions of learning, schemes of private study 
have also been established for our workers, by pursuing which they 
might progress in secular and religious knowledge, as well as practical 
force, and, on passing examinations in which, at stated intervals, they 
might be advanced in salary, dignity and general usefulness. The 
most important of these is one which was adopted by the Sialkot Pres- 
bytery in October, 1887, and which has ever since been in operation. 
These schemes resemble somewhat the arrangements made by Metho- 

* Compare with this the objections made to an educational policy in evangelistic 
work (pp. 165-168, 173), and obstructions to the increase of a well-qualified native 
ministry (Chap. XXVIII). 

f Hence arose our " Evangelical Grade" — the one to which the late Rev. E. P. 
Swift belonged and to which the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das belonged before he left our 
church. 



298 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

dist Episcopal Conferences for the improvement and advancement of 
their preachers and exhorters. Little practical benefit, however, has 
hitherto been derived from them by us. Perhaps the course of study 
proposed is too hard ; perhaps the workers have not enough leisure 
time to pursue it properly; perhaps the arrangements for examinations 
are not as favorable as they should be ; perhaps there is not enough 
of ambition among those for whom these schemes are intended. 
Whatever the cause, few have availed themselves of the advantages 
thus set before them. 

Summer schools, no doubt, have accomplished more. These are 
held for a few days, or weeks, at the season when least can be done in 
itineration and village work. Sometimes they are local, including 
only the laborers of one District. Sometimes the workers of several 
Districts are joined together in the meetings. The exercises consist of 
special lectures, drills, Bible readings, conferences, prayer meetings — 
anything and everything, in short, which would conduce to intellectual 
growth, Biblical knowledge, practical skill and spiritual life. And all 
are under the leadership of specially appointed and specially qualified 
instructors, foreign or native. 

Religious conventions differ from summer schools in being less pro- 
tracted, formal and select in their character. A programme is made 
out beforehand, and perhaps printed, and papers are read or addresses 
delivered on special subjects. But the Christian community in general 
is expected to attend, while there is a great deal of freedom and spon- 
taneity in their proceedings — just as is the case at home. Several con- 
ventions of this character have been held during the past twelve years, 
and, as a general thing, they have been highly profitable. 

The monthly meetings of workers, when they make their reports to 
their superintendent and receive their pay, have already been men- 
tioned in another connection.* These are sometimes conducted in 
such a way as to be very useful to all the participants. The simple re- 
ports of success, or trial, then given will often themselves have a 
marked effect for good upon every hearer ; while the advice presented, 
the prayers offered up, the Psalms sung, and the brotherly sympathy 
felt, help greatly the general edification of all who are present, and 
tend to lift minister and helpers alike to a higher plane of Christian 
activity and religious experience. 

Church courts have also exercised a good training influence upon 

*See p. 273. 



<«***** 




% 










A GROUP OF CHRISTIANS. 




WOMEN'S DEPARTMENT, CHRISTIAN TRAINING INSTITUTE. 



CHURCH COURTS AS TRAINING SCHOOLS 299 

officers of the church. Here ministers and elders learn parliamentary 
and ecclesiastical law and become skilled in the management of church 
business. Here they learn that self-restraint, that deference to authority, 
that discrimination between the true and the false, that regard for the 
rights of others, and that obligation to seek the edification of the whole 
church, which are necessary to make them safe and useful rulers over 
the people of God. Missionaries, of course, are expected to co-operate 
in such organizations, and, when they are qualified by gifts and ex- 
perience for the business, do much, by example and precept, to instruct 
their native brethren and prepare them for independent action. Co- 
operation by them in the lowest courts (Sessions) as elders, under the 
moderatorship of native pastors, as is sometimes done, also gives a 
pattern of humility, submission and brotherly love, which helps to curb 
the spread of an ambitious or a supercilious spirit, and tends, either to 
prevent the rise of a misunderstanding between foreigners and natives, 
or to remove such a condition after it has once originated.* 

One great drawback to this branch of higher training is that mis- 
sionaries themselves have little experience in parliamentary and eccle- 
siastical business previous to their departure for a foreign field. Very 
seldom have they ever been in a pastorate, or have they ever been for 
any length of time members of a church court at home, before under- 
taking the important responsibility of leadership in the formation of a 
young and rising church abroad. With the prestige of Europeans and 
Americans, they yet often make the mistakes of a tyro ; and the result 
of such teaching and influence upon the natives is likely to be crude- 
ness, inconsistency, confusion and ignorance of, or disrespect for, the 
Presbyterian polity, if not for all parliamentary law. A special course 
of instruction and discipline in matters of this kind is certainly an im- 
portant prerequisite to successful ministerial work abroad, and should 
be taken by all ordained men who go to our foreign missions — especially 
at the present stage in their progress of development. 

Another drawback, particularly in the higher courts, is the lack of 
pecuniary responsibility, and dependence for the sinews of power upon 
the Missionary Association. Without men or money little can be done 
in any undertaking; and for these necessaries, Sessions, Presbyteries 
and the Synod are dependent upon the will of the Mission. The 
knowledge of this fact takes away the chief stimulus to action in our 
ecclesiastical bodies. A damper is thus thrown upon plans, resolu- 
tions and discussions. Every one knows that nothing can be finally 
* See Note 6, p. 416. 



300 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

settled in these courts and that the Mission may not even consider the 
matters which they bring forward. Natives feel that they are wasting 
breath by speech-making, and thought by careful deliberation. Foreign 
members are shy to commit themselves — reserving their opinions 
and remarks for another arena. Thus the dryness of routine, the 
platitudes of commonplace talk, and the wildnesses of undigested 
thought are substituted for the earnestness and brightness and effective- 
ness of serious debate. The training and growth in wisdom sought for 
are largely lost. A sense of irresponsibility and weakness dominates 
everything and settles, like a partial paralysis, over the whole pro- 
ceedings. For this reason some natives have gone so far as to express 
the wish that, until more power is given our higher courts, these courts 
would cease to act altogether. * 

Associated with all these various means of lower and higher training 
is that of the printed page — religious literature. 

First and foremost in this line comes, of course, the Bible in vernacu- 
lar tongues. Three translations have been utilized — the Urdu, the 
Gurmukhi, and the Punjabi in Persian character. 

The Urdu, which is published in three characters — Roman, Persian, 
and Arabic — had its beginnings in the early part of the century. Two 
independent versions of the New Testament were then issued — one by 
the Serampur (Baptist) missionaries in 1811 and another by Henry 
Martyn (Church of England) in 1815, which had been completed as. 
early as 1808. But the Old Testament in Hindustani was not com- 
pleted until 1842. It is sometimes called the " Shurman and Hawkins " 
translation ; but the Rev. James Wilson also is said to have had a share 
in its production. The Rev. J. A. Shurman belonged to the London 
Missionary Society ; the Rev. James Wilson was an American Presby- 
terian. When a second edition was needed, Dr. Joseph Warren, an 
American Presbyterian missionary of Allahabad, was associated with 
Mr. Shurman in the work of revision, and, as the latter died when this 
work was half finished, most of the labor connected with it fell upon 
the former. From time to time, too, as other editions were required P 
changes have been made in these versions to make them more faithful 
or intelligible. What is sometimes called the Mirzapur translation or 
revision, (that is, the product of the labors of Dr. R. C. Mather and 
others, which was published at Mirzapur, a station of the London Mis- 
sionary Society in Bengal,) is now recognized by many as the stand- 
ard edition of the Urdu Bible. But in 1892 a committee was appointed 
* Recent action somewhat lessens this drawback. See p. 347. 



TRANSLATION OF THE SCRIPTURES 301 

by the British and Foreign Bible Society to undertake a thorough re- 
vision of all past efforts, so as to secure a still more perfect version.* 

It may be of interest to note here that the work of translating the 
Scriptures into the different languages of the non-Christian world and 
of revising old translations, as well as the work of distribution, is ac- 
complished mainly at the expense and under the direction of the great 
Bible Societies of Protestantism, and especially two of these — the 
American, and the British and Foreign — and that these societies divide 
the foreign field between themselves in such a way that their under- 
takings will not clash. Hence we find the American Society alone 
operating in Mexico and Cuba and the British and Foreign Society in 
Greece, while the latter claims the special right to carry on its work in 
lands which are ruled by the Queen of England. 

True, a fundamental principle with the American Society is this, 
that " wherever American missionaries go, needing the Holy Scriptures 
as a part of the weapons with which they are to conduct their fight with 
irreligion and sin," there it may " go along, tendering its aid and 
sharing in the work which they do ; " and the British Society, too, 
seems to act according to the same principle. This is why we find the 
former association helping American missionaries in Bengal, Madura, 
Madras and other parts of India, and the latter extending her aid, at 
least in recent years, to the agents of the Church Missionary Society 
in Egypt. 

But, however the division of the territory may be effected, local 
societies, found in the different non-Christian countries reached, are 
usually connected with that larger organization which claims the field 
to which they respectively belong. This is why the work of revising 
our Urdu version fell into the hands of the British and Foreign Bible 
Society ; and, as this society is supported chiefly by members of the 
Church of England, it is easily seen that that religious body has the 
predominant influence in determining who the translators, and what 
the result, shall be. 

The propriety of now undertaking a revision of the Urdu Bible in 
the manner indicated is questionable. That the present version is de- 
fective all will admit. It is not always founded on the best readings ; 
it does not always give the exact meaning of the original ; its language 

* See article by the Rev. J. J. Lucas, D. D., in the Indian Evangelical Review, 
Vol. XIII, pp. 45, 46 ; also " Life of Henry Martyn," by George Smith, LL. D., and 
pages 184 and 291 of this book. 



302 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

is often too high and too difficult for the common people. But what 
we need more than anything else is a new version from entirely native 
sources (from one man alone, if possible) as the basis of revision — a 
version couched in the simplest and most idiomatic terms, and yet true 
to the Hebrew and the Greek of inspired men — just such a version as 
that of Tyndale or Luther was; and until such a version springs up 
we foreign missionaries might very well wait and devote our strength 
to other work. The present version will meanwhile answer the great 
ends of a translation very well.* 

The Gurmukhi is a Punjabi translation of the New Testament and 
portions of the Old, and is published in a character of its own which 
resembles somewhat the Devanagari of the Sanskrit. A Punjabi ver- 
sion was issued as long ago as the year 1815 by the Serampur mission- 
aries ; but the one referred to here is that which was prepared by the 
Revs. John Newton, D. D., L. Janvier and others. It was begun in 
1837, but was not entirely completed until the year 1866. Lately, too, 
it has been undergoing revision. This is used sometimes by zenana 
workers and preachers in the villages, and is understood better by il- 
literate people than the Urdu. But it covers only a part of the Bible 
and requires for its perusal the acquisition of a new character ; and be- 
sides, the language used varies materially from the Punjabi of our own 
field. It is the tongue of a more eastern section and of an earlier day 
— of a time when Sikhism was dominant. 

The Punjabi gospel in Persian character is an effort at a new trans- 
lation of the New Testament, published in a form which can be read 
by those who are acquainted with the Persian Urdu. It originated in 
our own Mission. Dr. Gordon, it is known, was very much in favor 
of literature of this character ; but the Rev. D. S. Lytle is the one who 
arranged for its production, and Rahmat Masih, then a licentiate under 
our care, is the one who was employed by him to do the work of trans- 
lation. After two or three of the gospels had been put into Persian 
Punjabi and published — the first in 1885 — the Punjab Bible Society 
expressed a desire to take over the work into their own hands and, 
with our permission, did so. This was in 1886. But only the gospels, 
as yet, have been rendered into this character. Of the benefit derived 
from this translation, so far as it has been made, one can hardly speak 
too highly. It brings the most interesting part of God's Word home 
to the apprehension of more people than any other version in our pos- 

* See pp. 290-292. 



THE PSALMS IN METER 303 

session and is an invaluable help to zenana and village work. It is to 
be hoped that no unpractical scruples about the exact rendering of cer- 
tain words will prevent the early completion of at least the whole New 
Testament in this form and that it will always be kept in stock for sale. 

Next to prose translations of the Bible, versions of the Psalms in 
meter have done more perhaps than any other species of literature to 
develop and sustain the religious life of our people. Up to the year 
1883 we were wholly dependent upon chants for our service of praise, 
or upon such metrical versions as could be had in the publications of 
other Missions. Those found in a book of Psalms and Hymns, called 
" Zabur aur Git," were more used than any others. But they were few 
in number and not very closely conformed to the original. Accord- 
ingly efforts were put forth at an early date to secure a complete and 
faithful version of our own. Little progress was made, however, until 
the year 1882— partly because those interested in the work oscillated 
between the adoption of Eastern and Western meters. In January, 
1882, an order was given by Presbytery to her Psalm Committee to 
prepare first a version in Western meter. This was more needed at that 
time than the other, and the direction given was, under the circum- 
stances, no doubt a wise one. By the spring of 1883 seven Psalms in 
meter were adopted, and published, and brought into use ; and in 
another year sixteen more. These were in the Persian character. 
Twenty more Psalms were reported ready in October, 1884; six in 
April, 1885 ; nineteen in October, 1885, and thirty-two in October, 
1886. These, with those previously printed, made 100 in all 
and were published together, first (in the fall of 1887) in Roman 
Urdu, and afterwards (in 1889) in the Persian character. In Octo- 
ber, 1891, the remaining fifty Psalms were also published in the latter 
form, and subsequently they appeared in Roman also. 

The poet employed in performing this work of versification was the 
Rev. Imam ul Din Shahbaz. But the chairman of the Psalm Commit- 
tee, and others, rendered him some assistance, especially in ascertain- 
ing the exact meaning of the original Hebrew. Until his departure 
for America in the spring of 1885, Dr. Gordon was the chairman of 
the Committee, and after that, Dr. Martin. 

These Psalms have given us great aid and satisfaction in the ordi- 
nance of praise, especially in our older and more established congre- 
gations.* 

*See p. 265. 



804 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

But the less cultured of our people like native meters and native airs 
better than those of Occidental origin, and it was found necessary to 
prepare versions of the bhajan form, and that, too, in the Punjabi 
tongue — the language which they love most and know best. Before 
the Presbyterial Committee could begin this work, however, a differ- 
ent Committee, composed of missionaries alone, was appointed by the 
Mission (in January, 1890) to perform it — the Rev. D. S. Lytle, chair- 
man. But, little could be done without native aid, and especially the 
aid of our poet. Accordingly the Rev. I. D. Shahbaz was virtually 
added to the Committee and performed the most important part of its 
literary labor. The result was published in the early part of the sum- 
mer of 1893. It consists of fifty-five selections of Psalms with music. Mr. 
Lytle is responsible for the notation of most of the music — the airs be- 
ing such as he found already established in the songs of the people. 

These bhajans occupy a place somewhat analogous to the ''Bible 
Songs " in our home church, or S. S. Hymn Books in other churches, 
but their use at present is even more extensive. Scarcely anything else 
is now sung in our village congregations, at me/as, or in bazar work. 

Indian lyric poetry, and the tunes associated therewith, resemble 
very much the songs of the Bedouins of Egypt and Western Asia. 
The scientific difference between them and those which prevail among 
us Western people has never yet been thoroughly investigated. 
Rhyme, we know, is largely discarded in the former and less attention 
is paid to regularity of feet than in Occidental poetry. " The octave 
in its music," says Sir William Hunter, "is divided into twenty-two 
subtones, instead of the twelve semi-tones of the European scale, and 
the complicated structure of its musical modes rests upon three separate 
systems, one of which consists of five, another of six, and another of 
seven notes." The effect upon a Western ear is not always pleasant. 
It seems often like a " ballad in a minor key sung intentionally out of 
tune; and melodies which the Indian composer pronounces to be the 
perfection of harmony, and which have for ages touched the hearts and 
fired the imagination of Indian audiences, are condemned as discord 
by the European critic."* Yet some of its tunes are most delightful. 
Their very weirdness, wildness, plaintiveness and curious repetitions 
chain the attention and entrance the heart even of a foreigner, and to 
a native are as irresistible as the songs of paradise. Of some hill airs 
introduced into a new edition of a Hindustani tune book, containing 
*Sir William Hunter's "The Indian Empire," p. 119. 



Prelude 



Zabur 22.* 

Moderately fast 





Refrain 



Fine 



f UUg 



/7\ 



^rP^- *-j - y |- j^ EiEHE^Ej=a 



Vme 






as. 




CAo. — AiKhudawand | aiRabb mere ] kyunTunmeri | sunda nahin 
^Merimadad | tefaryadthon | durkyunrahnda | sundanahin. 

1. Ai Khudawand | RabbTumera | mainpukarda | fajare tainunfc 
Rat nun bhi main | chup na rahnda | par Tu meri | sunda nahin 

2. Tun Khudawand | pak Khuda hain | pahanda hai Tun | wadi Si | 
Asra rakhaya | pio dadean ne | uhnan nun tun | chaddiya nahin 

3. Arzi Tere | agge kit! | uhnan nun chut- | kara miliya | 
Jinhan asra | Tera kita | uh sharminda | hoe nahin. 

4. Mainun sfib mal- | amatkarde | sarewekhke | sang bhi lande | 
Sir hilaunde | rahnde apne | hun main kira | banda nahia 

£.. Kahnde hain uh | thatha marke | oh bharosa j Rabb te dharda | 
Je Khuda hai | us nal razi | tan uh us nun | chad da nahin. 

6. Tere hathon | janam paya | tun ne main nun | ai Khudawand | 
Man di god wich ] asrS ditta f tun ne main niin 1 chaddiya nahin. 



* The Twenty-second Psalm in Oriental meter — a bhafan. 



(305) 



306 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

bhajans and gazals, the preface says, " Though monotonous in their 
endless repetitions, they are as weird and strange as their own Hima- 
layas, breathing not only the sameness of mountain range, but the dash 
of streamlet and gleam of sunshine, or in the oft-recurring minors, the 
awe of unapproachable heights." Indeed, were it not for the popular 
songs which it has produced, Hinduism would be shorn of half its 
power. 

Of other literature, catechisms perhaps come next in order as a 
means of training our people. Several of these have done good service 
within the bounds of our field — first, a translation of Brown's " Short 
Catechism " into Urdu by Miss McCahon, and another of the same into 
Punjabi, under Dr. Martin's direction ; next, an Urdu version of the 
Assembly's " Shorter Catechism " issued by the Presbyterians from their 
Ludhiana press, and an easy " Bible Catechism " prepared and published 
by the Methodists at Lucknovv ; then a little book, called " The Punjabi 
Ilm-i-Ilahi," translated by Miss Campbell, and a " Protestant Cate- 
chism" translated and printed by the writer of this book in 1890. 
When the Christian Training Institute was started, a knowledge of the 
Assembly's " Shorter Catechism " was made a condition of admission 
into that institution, but this condition soon became a dead letter. 
However, most of the students know it well before they leave the Insti- 
tute, as do also the girls of the Boarding School. In villages the other 
catechisms (especially the first two named) have been taught more 
than it has been. 

Little other printed matter of a Christian character reaches our 
common people except perhaps Barth's " Scripture History " and some 
other elementary books (which are occasionally used as text books in 
primary schools) and monthly tracts, which are issued gratis by differ- 
ent societies or private individuals; although copies of the Nur Af- 
shan and other vernacular Christian newspapers are often taken by our 
workers and read more or less to, and by, the villagers among whom 
they labor. 

Urdu commentaries on the different books of the Bible, as already 
mentioned, are not numerous, and those that have been prepared are 
generally either very simple in their character or written in the interest 
of some particular denomination. Nothing of the kind, moreover, 
has been prepared by our laborers. A series of thorough commentaries 
extending over the whole Bible is one of the desiderata of the Indian 
Church. 



USEFUL BOOKS IN THE VERNACULAR 307 

In the line of theology several books have done us some service. 
First, Dr. J. S. Barr's condensed translation of the theology of Dr. 
Charles Hodge. This was used some in the Theological Seminary. 
But it covers only a part of the work and still lies in an unbound and 
unpublished, although printed form. Help in the Seminary was also 
derived from a translation into Roman Urdu of Dr. A. A. Hodge's 
''Outlines of Theology" by the Rev. J. J. Caleb, of Allahabad. Al- 
though the language of this book is high, our students generally could 
understand it and profit by it. Less pretentious works are " Talim ul 
Iman," a translation of an American compend of theology* by one 
of the Allahabad missionaries, and a translation of selections from 
Brown's " Explication of the Shorter Catechism " by the Rev. Samuel 
Martin, D. D. The former particularly was helpful in our Training 
Institute and the Girls' Boarding School. But the edition ran out and 
the use of the book, to our regret, had to be discontinued. 

No good, complete church history has yet been prepared and pub- 
lished in Urdu. Dr. Wherry's version of Dr. MofhYs brief work is 
too small for the use of theological students, touching only the heads 
of events. What is needed is a work about as large as Dr. George P. 
Fisher's "History of the Christian Church," or Smith's "Students' 
Ecclesiastical History," with a good analysis attached. A larger work 
was begun by the writer of these pages but has been continued only as 
far as the second volume. It embraces first, " The Apostolic Church," 
which is a translation of the first part of Dr. Killen's "Ancient 
Church," and secondly, " The Ante-Nicene Church," an extensive com- 
pend of the second volume of Dr. Schaff's "History of the Christian 
Church," both of which were prepared with the consent of their dis- 
tinguished authors. Were the series completed it would be of great 
use, for reference at least, to many persons besides those who are 
attending Theological Seminaries. The present writer had also a 
translation made of Fisher's " History of the Reformation," but it has 
never yet been revised or published. 

A small "Greek Grammar" by Dr. Youngson, a small "Greek 
Lexicon " by Dr. Ewing, a " Hebrew Grammar " by Dr. Warren, and 
a " Lexicon " by Dr. Hooper, have done good service in our Seminary, 
and so also have other works of a less technical and more practical 
character done among our ministers and Christian workers. 

One other book, too, must be specially mentioned. It is our " Book 
*Dr. John McDowell's. 



308 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

of Discipline " — embracing, not only the Book of Church Government 
and Discipline, but also our Directory for Worship and the Rules of 
Order to be followed in ecclesiastical courts. This translation, which 
is chiefly the work of the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das, dragged along for 
several years, but was finally issued in the spring of 1887, and since 
then has been of great use in the management of the business of Ses- 
sions, Presbyteries and the Synod. In connection with this also 
should be mentioned a "List of Urdu Equivalents for English Tech- 
nical Terms used in Conducting Presbyterial and Synodical Business," 
which was published in 1885 by order of the Presbyterian Synod of 
India and supplied a crying want. 

While noting the above-mentioned works more particularly, it must 
be remembered also that a considerable number of other books and 
tracts have been issued by the various Book Societies and presses of 
India and that many of these find their way to the homes of our 
workers and our people. In a descriptive catalogue of Urdu Chris- 
tian Literature and other publications, prepared and published by the 
Rev. H. U. Weitbrecht, Ph.D., in 1886, mention is made of 489 
different Christian books and tracts which had been issued in Urdu, 
352 of which were intended for Christians and 137 for non-Christians. 
Of the first class, 25 were commentaries; 25 Bible hand-books; 38 
doctrinal, moral and pastoral ; 9 church history ; 8 sermons ; 53 
devotional; 7 biography; 98 stories; 13 for women and girls ; 57 for 
children, and 19 miscellaneous. Of the second class, 75 are said to 
have been general in their character, 6 directed against Hinduism, 52 
against Islam and 4 against the reforming sects of both Hinduism and 
Muhammadanism. Mention is also made of 96 publications in Pun- 
jabi (besides the Holy Scriptures), 41 of which were for Hindus, 9 for 
general use, and 46 for the young. 

From a recent report of the Punjab Religious Book Society, we find 
that they keep in stock for sale, at their fine depository in Lahore, 479 
different publications in Persian Urdu, 190 in Roman Urdu and 82 in 
Punjabi, or 651 altogether. Of these 253 are issued by the Punjab 
Society itself; 84 by the Society for the Propagation of Christian 
knowledge ; 65 by the American Presbyterian Mission ; 64 by the 
Methodist Press at Lucknow ; 56 by the North India Tract Society at 
Allahabad ; 26 by the Orphanage Press at Secundra ; 20 by the 
Orphanage Press at Mirzapur ; and the rest, by various other pub- 
lishers. These books have circulated, to some extent, among those of 



RELIGIOUS BOOKS IN URDU AND PUNJABI 309 

our people who could read and were able to purchase them and have 
done great good.* 

The absolute number of separate publications will appear dimin- 
ished a good deal, however, when we note the fact that many of them 
are found printed in both Urdu and Punjabi, and sometimes in both 
Roman and Persian Urdu. Their aggregate amount also does not 
accord with the number of volumes enumerated ; for most of the vol- 
umes are very small — mere tracts and pamphlets, indeed. Of the 479 
printed in Persian Urdu, only SS contain each 100 pages or more, and 
only 43 additional treatises contain more than 50 pages each; 
while at least 100 publications contain less than 20 pages each. One 
series of 24 illustrated books, found in all three forms, making a total 
of 72 volumes, does not show a book in any form of more than 12 
pages. The largest volume is a " Concordance " of 901 pages; the 
next, a " Commentary on Acts " of 636 pages ; and the third a " Book 
of Common Prayer" (Church of England), containing 561 pages. 
The books, too, are largely of what might be called the Sabbath- 
school variety, and, although suited to our people while they remain 
babes in Christ, are ill adapted to lead them on to a high degree of 
religious intelligence and Christian manhood. 

But a beginning has been made, and we may hope that, as the years 
roll on, our Punjabi Christians will not only inherit the literary pro- 
ductions of the past but also acquire many and valuable additions to their 
stock of published works and show the benefit derived therefrom by a 
marked advance in every grace. 

* The receipts from the sale of vernacular books by the Punjab Religious Book 
Society, since the year 1884, has averaged about 10,000 rupees yearly ; from all kinds 
of books, about 20,000 rupees per annum. 




CROCODILE. 



CHAPTER XXVI 



ECCLESIASTICAL DEVELOPMENT AND MATURITY— I 

Financial Self-support — Extreme Rarity in Mission Lands — Apparent Exceptions — 
Madagascar — Missions of the C. M. S. and S. P. G. — Japan — The Sandwich 
Islands — A Burning Question — Our Own Mission Like Others Generally — 
Churches Not Financially Self-sustaining — Efforts and Progress Made — Reme- 
dies Proposed — Lessening Salaries — Increasing Contributions — Have Missions 
Started Wrong? — Poverty of the Native Church — How this May Be Remedied 
— By Education, Industrial Training and Agricultural Settlements — Their 
Drawbacks — By Church Growth Especially Among the Rich — Practical Sug- 
gestions — Neighboring Missions. 

|OW we come to the most difficult and discouraging part of 
our subject — namely, ecclesiastical development and matu- 
rity — by which is meant not only church organization and 
self-support, but also the establishment in every particular 
of a self-governing, self-propagating religious body. All heretofore 
mentioned under the head of evangelism and Christian training is pre- 
liminary to this and has this for its great object and aim ; and without 
securing this end Christian Missions can be said to accomplish little or 
no permanent good. A few souls, indeed, may be saved (and this it 
must be admitted is an important matter), but, unless the foundation 
(310) 




MISSION CHURCHES IN LEADING-STRINGS 311 

of a perpetual work can be laid, the movement becomes largely a fail- 
ure. It does not strike its roots deep down into the soil. It is liable 
to be swept away by blasts of persecution. It needs to be constantly 
fostered, coddled, protected by outside influences. It gives no prom- 
ise of bearing abundant, unintermittent and unceasing fruit.* 

And yet this is just the condition of most Protestant Missions at the 
present time. Sporadic cases of financially self-sustaining congrega- 
tions may indeed be pointed out in connection with the operations of 
various missionary bodies. There have been a few such among the 
Karens of Burma, the Cingalese Christians of the American Board 
and the Mahrattas of Southern India — to say nothing of other lands 
where the gospel has been propagated. And, what is more encourag- 
ing still, two or three countries, such as Japan, may be named where 
native churches have been combining together on an independent 
basis, declaring their impatience of the necessity of foreign help, and 
making rapid strides towards the goal which we are contemplating; 
while the Sandwich Islands in 1863 announced their ability to do 
without the oversight of the American Board and aspired themselves to 
a place among the Christian nations of the world. 

But such instances as these are rare indeed. At least ninety-five 
per cent, of all the Christians and the churches in strictly mission 
lands are still in the leading-strings of those to whom they were in- 
debted for their first knowledge of the gospel — financially dependent 
upon them, and intellectually, morally, spiritually and ecclesiastically 
under their guidance and subject to their will. 

Madagascar has been called " the crown of the London Missionary 
Society" and " the miracle of modern missions," and, as an example 
of rapid and general conversion to Christianity, it can be cited as one 
of the most remarkable instances of modern times. "The Hovas," 
it is said, "have been a nominally Christian nation for thirty years." 
They are said to have a well-developed Christian church, with 1061 
native ordained ministers; 5870 native preachers; 1300 congregations; 
63,020 church members, and 74,428 school pupils ; and Christianity has 
been officially proclaimed to be the law of the land.f Yet these Hovas 
still cost the London Missionary Society " many thousands a year " and 
the expense required for mission work among them "shows no signs 
of diminution." 

The Church Missionary Society of England was organized in April, 

* See pp. 148, 149 and 261. f The statistics are those given in 1894. 



312 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

1799, and is now said to be the largest in the world. Its operations 
extend to various parts of Africa, Central Asia, China, Japan, New 
Zealand, North America and the North Pacific ; and in India it sur 
passes every other organization working there in the number of, its 
laborers and converts. It embraces altogether 844 European mission- 
aries, 347 of whom are ordained ; 312 native and Eurasian clergy and 
4876 native lay teachers. It reports 54,561 native communicants, 
200,484 adherents, 2025 schools and 81,648 pupils. These are found 
in 324 stations scattered widely over the two hemispheres.* And 
almost equal to this association in the extent of its operations is the 
" Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts," which 
was incorporated June 16, 1701, became a distinctly missionary 
agency in 182 1 and now forms the other great arm of the Church of 
England in her efforts to evangelize the world. 

And yet, at a late Anglican conference of Missions in London, the 
Rev. R. P. Ashe, formerly of Uganda, is reported to have stated as a 
sad fact that, " after a century of effort and the expenditure of many 
noble lives, as. well as of some millions of money, the Church of Eng- 
land (extraordinary to say) has signally failed to establish one solitary 
or single native church in any part of the world — that is to say, a 
church self-governed, self-supporting, and expanding, or exhibiting 
any true signs of vitality as a church." 

And substantially the same thing may be said of almost every other 
denomination and society in the mission field. 

Even the sporadic cases of congregational self-support (in a finan- 
cial sense), to which we have already referred, are in many instances 
more apparent than real. They often lack permanence of pecuniary 
strength. The churches in question are continually oscillating be- 
tween a condition of dependence and one of independence. Fre- 
quently, too, foreigners, and even missionaries, figure most promi- 
nently on their subscription lists, as has been true, for instance, in our 
Sialkot church ; while, in almost all cases, much of their moral and 
their religious strength is derived from their mission surroundings. It 
is doubtful whether any of them, or even an association of them, 
would be able to stand alone. 

Nor are the beginnings of independence as exhibited in Japan, or 
the Sandwich Islands, free from mistrust. In respect to doctrine, dis- 
cipline, legislation and elevated religious life, the native churches of 
* Statistics published in 1894. 



SANDWICH ISLANDERS AND THE HOVAS 313 

Japan show serious defects, and sometimes appear to be almost on the 
verge of shipwreck — and that, too, while still surrounded, and to some 
extent supported, by missionary forces. It has also been found neces- 
sary for the American Board to continue assisting the churches of the 
Sandwich Islands, not only by grants of money in aid of their various 
enterprises, but also (since 1877) by furnishing a superintendent for 
their Training School. This has been owing partly, no doubt, to the 
rapid decrease of the native population. But one of the revelations 
made by the late establishment of a new government there is the small 
progress made by Christianity among many of the people of that archi- 
pelago and the difficulty experienced in preventing, not merely the 
restoration of a corrupt monarchy, but even a relapse into heathenism 
itself. Were it not for the descendants of missionary agents and 
foreign settlers residing at Honolulu and other points in the neighbor- 
hood, history might be compelled to revise its decision in regard to 
that region, and point to it, not so much as a " miracle of missions," 
as a conspicuous example of the failure, or at least the degeneracy, of 
missions. 

What is the reason of all this? Why can we not have results similar 
to those which followed the work of the apostles ? Have we not been 
operating on a wrong basis, or in a wrong direction? Cannot some 
remedy be applied to the present widespread malady? Cannot the 
danger of atrophy be checked ? Cannot the infantile state of mission- 
ary churches be soon changed into that of manhood ? These are press- 
ing questions — questions, too, which are engaging the serious attention 
of earnest minds in every direction. 

Speaking of the condition of the Hova Christians in Madagascar, a 
venerable Congregational minister of England asks, " Is that as it 
should be ? I know what will be said of the instability of new con- 
verts, and truly said ; but, admitting the need of European guidance 
at the beginning, can there be the same need now? To say that if 
left to itself the native church would lapse into heathenism is really to 
say that Christianity is a foreign exotic in Madagascar, which can only 
live under shelter and protection, than which no more damaging con- 
fession could be made. What I plead for is this : that the whole mis- 
sionary question needs to be reconsidered. Besides contributions and 
more earnest prayers, we want the highest statesmanship applied to the 
difficulties that thicken about us." 

And, referring to the " tremendous indictment " of " Church Mis* 



314 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

sions" by Mr. Ashe (.il ready quoted), a newspaper says, '• We very 
much wish that Mr. Ashe had been able to explain at greater length what 
he really meant. . We are all assured he fully recognizes the extent and 
reality and vitality of missionary success. His words apply to the one 
point — a point of great importance — the absence of any case of entire 
and absolute native church organization. Our method is certainly 
more or less unlike that adopted by the apostles." Another paper, 
too, speaking of the same failure, says, "It is surely a serious reflection 
on the methods on which work has been done. There is no doubt that 
a wide difference exists between many or most of the lands in which 
Christ is now preached to the heathen and the countries in which He 
was originally preached ; but still there are old lands, such as India 
and China, in which it ought to be possible to form self-governing 
and self-supporting churches." 

Our own India Mission, I am sorry to say, exhibits the same defect 
in this particular that is exhibited by most other Missions, and part of 
our duty now is to present and discuss, in the light of our own special 
experience, the problem thus forced upon our attention. 

Ecclesiastical maturity, in the large sense in which we now use the 
term, embraces three things — pecuniary self-support, thorough church 
organization and self-governing power. 

In each of these respects, however, we have to confess a great de- 
ficiency. Our native church is far from being financially self-sustain- 
ing ; four-fifths or five-sixths of our people are outside of regularly or- 
ganized congregations; and our supply of well qualified native minis- 
ters, pastors and elders, comes deplorably short of that which is neces- 
sary to thoroughly man and carry on independently and properly the 
work of the field. 

That considerable effort has been made to instruct our members in 
regard to the great principles of liberality and secure their fulfillment 
of the obligation to give for religious and benevolent objects as the Lord 
hath prospered them, is undoubtedly true. Sermons have been preached 
upon the subject ; conferences have been held having this as one of 
their objects ; resolutions have been passed by the Mission, and by our 
ecclesiastical bodies, not only expressing what we regard as Scriptural 
views of Christian beneficence, but urging people to do what they can 
to support and spread the gospel ; aid has been offered congregations 
by the Mission, according to a sliding scale, on condition that the re- 
mainder of a pastor's salary be raised by the people themselves; mis- 



PROGRESS TOWARDS SELF-SUPPORT 315 

sion superintendents and others have helped to manage church sub- 
scription lists and done what they could, not only to secure signatures, 
but also to see that promised dues are paid. A Permanent Committee 
of Sialkot Presbytery was also appointed in 1883 to take the general 
oversight of this whole work, issue tracts and hold conferences on the 
subject of Christian beneficence and bring the members of the church up 
to a higher standard of liberality. 

And, as already indicated,* some progress has been made in accom- 
plishing the end aimed at in these efforts. Every settled congrega- 
tion gives something for the support of its pastor ; and for several years 
the Sialkot church, through the help of foreign members and adherents, 
has been self-sustaining. Many vacant charges and unorganized con- 
gregations have paid part of the expense of religious work within their 
own bounds. Church buildings and schoolhouses, in almost every 
instance, have owed their erection partly to contributions of labor or 
money from Christians in their neighborhood. Some congregations 
and local societies have supported workers in the evangelistic field and 
thus aided the general cause of missions. The expense of entertaining 
delegates at Presbytery, Synod and conferences of various kinds has 
been borne chiefly without any draft upon a foreign treasury. Schemes 
of an extended character, resembling the Sustentation Funds of Scot- 
tish Churches, have been started, pushed and supported with enthusiasm 
by natives. Contributions to the Quarter Centennial Fund of the Ameri- 
can Church, to the Foreign Board, to Freedmen's Missions, to special 
work in the Egyptian Mission, and to other outside objects, have at 
times been made with great heartiness by members of the India Church. 
In 1886 the Rev. I. D. Shahbaz alone sent thirty rupees to the treasury 
of our Foreign Board. In March, 1889, after a great calamity had be- 
fallen their suffering brethren in China and a strong appeal for help 
had been made to the people of India, our Sialkot church gave 180 
rupees to the Chinese Relief Fund. 

But, after all, the advancement made by our India Church towards a 
condition of self-support has been very slight indeed. The salaries of 
the seven native ministers nowf connected with it vary from thirty 
to 120 rupees a month, while several of the brethren get eight 

* See pp. 195, 251 and 253. 

f This and the following pages were written before the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das 
left our Mission. It has not been thought necessary to modify the verbiage to suit 
the conditions now existing. Probably, too, Thakur will return to us. 



316 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

rupees extra as a special monthly allowance, and the total paid 
them amounted to 380 or 390 rupees per mensem, or an aggregate of 
about 4600 rupees per annum. But the sum of the contributions made 
by natives to all the various branches of Christian work carried on 
within our bounds, amounts, as reported in our statistics, to an average 
of less than 1700 rupees a year,* or very little more than is necessary to 
pay one-third of the salaries and allowances of our native ministers. 
And yet the sum paid these seven ordained men is but a small part of 
the amount given to all our 212 native workers. Probably the Chris- 
tian teachers in our different schools alone get three times as much as 
is paid to our ministers, while the wages of our unordained village 
preachers, licentiates, theological students, and zenana workers, swells 
many fold more the outlay of money made by the Mission. Add to 
this also the expense of our various bookshops, hospitals, dispensaries, 
schools, publications and church buildings, and it can easily be 
imagined how far short the funds contributed by natives come of bear- 
ing all the expenses incurred by our missionary efforts, as at present 
carried on. Suppose that foreign missionaries should now abandon 
the field altogether and the cost of supporting them be entirely dropped, 
probably not more than three per cent, of the remaining expense would 
be borne by the gifts of the native church — if its past liberality is to 
be accepted as any guide to what it would be after such a step had been 
taken. 

And even if there was a reconstruction of methods, so as to give 
them a closer resemblance to the machinery of American and British 
churches, much the same disproportion would still exist between the 
money which is given and what would be required. Suppose that each 
of our sixty-nine organized and unorganized congregations and mis- 
sion centers had a pastor, or a stated supply, our institutions were prop- 
erly manned, our literary work fully carried on, our aggressive move- 
ments on an ungodly world kept up, and full provision were made for 
substitutes in the case of the sickness or the death of laborers, at 
least 100 ministers or licentiates would be demanded;*)" and the 

* In 1893, 1384 rupees were reported; in 1894, 1322 rupees. See table in 
Appendix. 

f The Mission in a plan of proposed help which was adopted for consideration in 
the early part of the year 1893 decided that " not more than six villages should be 
included in one pastorate." According to this scheme fully 93 ministers would be 
needed for pastoral settlements alone in our 557 villages, or 24 more than are in- 
cluded in the above calculation. 



STANDARD FOR THE NATIVE MINISTRY 317 

salaries of this number, according to the rates now given, would 
amount to 60,000 or 65,000 rupees ($18,000 or $20,000) — that is, 
to thirty or forty times the sum total of native contributions usually 
reported. Nor is anything said in this calculation of the money which 
would be required in church erection, repairs, and Christian benevo- 
lence, or of the many other expenses which are always incurred by an 
active, zealous, high-spirited organization. 

But might not the salaries of ministers, and perhaps some other items 
of expenditure, be materially lessened ? Possibly they might. 

Some think that a lower standard for the ministry than that which 
we have set might be adopted and a cheaper class of laborers thus be 
secured. They would be willing to ordain men who had only just 
reached the Upper Primary standard of secular education,* or even 
men below this, in order to lessen the difficulty of congregational self- 
support. But this, in the writer's opinion, would be a very disastrous, 
and almost a suicidal, policy. It would degrade the native ministry, 
keep the common members of the church at a low point of Scripture 
knowledge, make our religious work contemptible in the eyes of a 
large part of the community, prevent it from being as aggressive and 
influential as it should be and hinder greatly the progress of the church 
there towards a condition of ecclesiastical maturity. A Middle School 
standard f for ordinary ministers and at least a College Entrance stand- 
ard I for some more highly educated clergymen, to be professors, 
authors, editors, pastors of important churches and qualified champions 
of the faith : these together form as low a standard as we can afford to 
establish for the ambassadors of Christ in such a land as India, es- 
pecially if the church there is ever expected to carry on its work as an 
independent, self-governing and self-propagating body.§ "The 
priest's lips should keep knowledge." 

While, however, the salaries of native ministers may not be lessened 
by lowering the qualifications of the ministerial class as a whole, they 
probably can be diminished in the course of time by a change of 

* Five years above ABC, but five years below College Entrance. 

f Two years below College Entrance. 

X These are the two grades which for many years we have had in India. One we 
call the lower grade, the other the evangelical. 

\ It is not even likely that our American Church would ever be willing to grant 
autonomy to her Indian dependency if the ministry of the latter were allowed to 
sink to a lower grade. 



318 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



custom. The law of demand and supply of course rules in the minis- 
terial market as it does in markets of other kinds of labor, and the 
wages now given is simply the result of that law. But as more Chris- 
tians become educated, as the number of theological students, licen- 
tiates, and ministers increases, in short as the market becomes better 

stocked, we may expect 
salaries to go down. 
It is probable, too, that 
native preachers them- 
selves, in order to se- 
cure greater ecclesiasti- 
cal independence, will 
manifest more and 
more of a self-sacrific- 
ing spirit and cheer- 
fully accept wages 
which may be lower 
than what their neigh- 
bors :ind predecessors 
have been accustomed 
to receive. * 

The hope, however, 
of such a reduction as 
some appear to expect 
must certainly be aban- 
doned. Good Chris- 
tian laborers are in 
great demand,and must 
continue to be so for 
a long time to come. 
It is impossible now to 
get enough of them at a reasonable salary to take the place of heathen 
teachers in our mission schools; and in evangelistic work, the super- 
intendent is often compelled to employ persons of doubtful or 
indifferent merit. The field for Christian labor, too, is constantly 
enlarging. Zion is extending her borders New stations are estab- 
lishing and new openings for faithful workers are multiplying at a 
rapid rate. Those who are qualified to preach the gospel with 
acceptability and efficiency must, therefore, be able for many years 
* See Note 4 on p. 415, and Note 7 on p. 416. 




FLYING FOXES. 



SALARIES OF NATIVE MINISTERS 319 

hereafter to command high wages. Nor is it probable that employers, 
who in this case are missionaries and native churches, will form a com- 
bination for the purpose of establishing lower salaries. To some ex- 
tent pressure may be brought to bear upon ministerial employees and 
little by little the reduction of their wages secured ; but efforts of this 
character smack so much of the dishonorable methods which are used 
by rings in some departments of secular business, and seem so much 
like devices of oppression, that they would undoubtedly do more harm 
than good. And, besides, there is a point below which we ourselves 
should not desire native salaries to go. A certain amount of good 
food and clothing and religious literature and comfort is absolutely 
necessary in order that " the man of God " may do justice to himself, 
his family, his parishioners and the church at large. It must be re- 
membered, too, that a Christian minister cannot follow the patriarchal 
style of living, or adopt eome of the other, economical expedients 
which prevail among Hindus and Muhammadans, and hence needs 
more money than pundits or maulvies to maintain a worldly position 
corresponding to that which they hold. 

But granting that a considerable reduction could be made in minis- 
terial salaries, supposing that they should be cut down one-half or even 
two-thirds (an almost violent hypothesis), the present contributions of 
the native church would still not support more than five or ten per 
cent, of the ordained preachers, that, without the assistance of the mis- 
sionaries, would b# necessary to properly carry on our work ; while 
education, church erection, publication and contingent expenses would 
still remain unprovided for. 

But cannot the amount of contributions received from natives be 
increased? Yes; I suppose it can. There has not heretofore been 
that regular system, that general co-operation, that wise leadership, 
that persistent effort, that constant instruction, that hearty stimulus in 
regard to this matter which there ought to be. Movements have been 
too spasmodic, circumscribed, mechanical and inharmonious, to reach 
the highest limit of possible success. Native Christians, too, in many 
cases, dislike the general course which has heretofore been pursued by 
Missions and missionaries, and have become so soured and disgusted 
that they cannot be induced to give as they would otherwise do. A 
prominent native member of another denomination, one high up in the 
Civil Service, was once approached by two foreigners with inquiries in 
regard to the reasons why he and his brethren do not furnish more pe- 



320 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

cuniary assistance to the work of the Lord which is going on around 
them, and in reply made remarks substantially as follows: " This is a 
delicate question, and I wish you had gone to some one else for the 
answer. Only this I would say, We do not give liberally because we 
do not like mission methods. I was once in mission service, but when 
I saw the way that missionaries treat the natives I concluded to aban- 
don it. It was a hard struggle, however, and now I do not give liber- 
ally to their work because I do not like their methods. The natives 
have no chance. So when collections are taken up I only contribute 
enough to get the plate passed by." This man, although acknowl- 
edged to be a good Christian in every other respect, was supposed to 
give only about one per cent, of his large income to religious and 
charitable objects. And similar to his are the feelings and the practice 
of many of his class. Unless, therefore, we deny altogether the sincer- 
ity of such persons in explaining their own illiberality, it must be ad- 
mitted that a modification of the present policy and the spirit which 
have often characterized mission work would, without doubt, make a 
great difference in the condition of the treasury of the native church. 

But, conceding the most that could be reasonably expected from 
such a change, contributions would doubtless fall short of what is nec- 
essary to run all the machinery of an independent, self-governing, 
aggressive ecclesiastical body. 

It must be remembered that our people, as a general rule, are among 
the poorest of the poor in that indigent land. It is probable that, on 
an average, the families in our church do not receive a constant income 
of more than four or five rupees a month, that is, less than two dollars. 
Supposing then that the number of these families is 4000 (a large 
estimate) their total income would therefore not exceed 16,000 or 
20,000 rupees a month. One-tenth of this would be 1600, or 2000, 
rupees; and one-tenth of a year's income would be from 20,000 to 
24,000 rupees, or about 7500 dollars. Even imagining then that all 
gave tithes, and that all gave all their tithes for ecclesiastical objects, 
there would still be a large deficit in the church treasury — too large a 
deficit to be covered by what they would probably receive from their 
heathen neighbors or their Christian rulers. 

Nor could all be expected to adopt the tithe system. The Chris- 
tians of England and America come far short of giving according to 
this standard. Even American ministers and elders do not always fol- 
low this rule. Perhaps foreign missionaries themselves may sometimes 



LIBERALITY OF HINDUS AND MOSLEMS 321 

be found among the delinquent ones. How then can we hope that 
converts from heathenism will all, at once, rise to the standard pro- 
posed upon this subject ? A great many will, doubtless, give little or 
nothing ; the majority will contribute as Christians of other countries 
generally do ; only a few will, at first, "give tithes of all that they 
possess." If an average of four or five per cent, of the income of the 
people could be constantly secured for religious and charitable objects 
we should consider their liberality hopeful — almost phenomenal ; and 
if three-fourths of this found its way into the congregational or the de- 
nominational treasury, those interested in the self-support of native 
churches might feel greatly encouraged. 

True, some might be disposed to judge them by a standard different 
from that which prevails among Occidental Christians, and expect 
them to give according to the rules which guide their Hindu or Mu- 
hammadan neighbors. 

Strange as it may seem at first view, these heathen people surpass the 
followers of Jesus generally in their measure of religious liberality. 

According to a Muhammadan of high official standing in Gujran- 
wala, the Moslems of the Punjab are required by rule to give twelve 
per cent, of their income to the support of their religion ; and though 
the very poor are practically exempt from this law, many others are 
said to live up to it. Nor does this include all their contributions. 
Much is also expended in the form of marriage and funeral fees ; and 
more still in building the tombs of saints — to say nothing of the 
bakhshish which is given to beggars and fakirs. 

Nor are Hindus behind the Muhammadans in this matter, although 
more irregular and fitful, perhaps, in their liberality. Offerings to the 
gods are common and frequent among them, just as are also gifts to 
Brahmans, family priests (J>urohifs), jogies, fakirs and others — while 
every faithful Hindu spends a large amount of money in keeping the 
feasts and performing the special ceremonies required by his sacred 
books. Some also before they die build a temple, a shrine, a tank, a 
drinking fountain, or some other object of supposed public benefit, 
which will perpetuate their names, and, as a "good work," add to 
their hope of reaching the goal of salvation, as they understand it. 
Frequently, too, Hindus receive needy brethren into their families 
and care for them. A Brahman Head Master of the Gujranwala High 
School, who afterwards became a Christian, thus adopted three boys 
into It is household and gave them a good education. 
21 



322 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

As therefore people professing highly corrupt forms of Christianity 
frequently surpass those who are truly evangelical in the extent of the 
sacrifices which they are ready to make in behalf of their faith (per- 
haps because of the stronger " legal bias " which they possess) so do 
these heathen and deistical Muhammadans surpass the majority of 
Christians of every name in reference to the same matter, and probably 
for the same reason. Salvation " by faith without works," for the 
present at least, is outshone in its liberality by salvation grounded 
on self-righteousness. 

It is hardly reasonable, however, to expect the native Christians of 
India, although they are surrounded by Hindus and Muhammadans, 
and many of them come from the ranks of these people, to imitate 
them in the freeness of their contributions to religious objects, and 
thus become exceptions among the adherents of their adopted faith, 
however desirable such a course might be. Not only have they an 
aversion to almost everything which is characteristic of heathenism and, 
on conversion, find mission work supported in an entirely different way 
from their old faith, but they also enter the Christian fold poor, and 
feel more like being objects of charity than dispensers of charity. The 
most that we can hope from them is that they follow in the footsteps 
of their fellow-Christians elsewhere and give to the Lord as above 
indicated. 

But the amount thus obtained, as every one who makes the calcula- 
tion can easily see, is still only the minor part of what would be 
needed merely to support the native ministry which would be required 
to carry on our work (provided they were left to do so without foreign 
help), to say nothing of the expense of the rest of the ecclesiastical 
machinery. 

Should we take account of pastors only among the ministers, and 
adopt the Mission's estimate of ninety-one as the smallest number that 
could properly man our congregations, forty or forty-five families might 
be reckoned to each pastoral settlement, with their monthly income, 
for all purposes, of 160 or 220 rupees ; and even if four per cent, of 
this could be made available for pastoral support, each settled minister 
would still receive only from six to nine rupees a month — that is, 
from one-ninth to one-sixth of the average income of our native clergy 
in 1894. 

From every point of view, therefore, the native church within our 
field seems at present to be entirely incapable of pecuniary self-support. 



REMEDIES DISCUSSED 323 

Some are disposed to lay the blame of this condition of things upon 
the policy which Missions have heretofore pursued of paying native 
Christian laborers. They claim that it would have been better not to 
have offered them any assistance whatever from mission funds, but to 
have required them from the start to depend for their support entirely 
upon the contributions of their fellow-countrymen. They say that the 
present necessity of giving high wages would in this way have been 
avoided altogether. Others affirm that, while native laborers ought to 
be paid from foreign funds, they have always been paid too much — that 
if native ministers received the wages of common carpenters and other 
mechanics in their own neighborhood, they would, comparatively speak- 
ing, be put upon an equality with ministers in our own and other 
Christian lands, and that the adoption of this standard would speedily 
bring about the result for which we are all working. Others again, 
such as J. G. Shome, M. A., a prominent convert from Hinduism in 
Calcutta, would abolish the stipendiary system altogether, and, after 
educating native ministers, would send them forth without purse or 
scrip and make them virtually fakirs. 

Much of all this, however, appears to the writer visionary, impracti- 
cable or unwise. The necessity and the duty of paying mission helpers 
for their services cannot be justly denied and if the people to whom 
they minister cannot, or will not, do so, others who have the ability to 
pay them ought to assume this responsibility. Natives have as much 
right to compensation for their work as missionaries themselves have. 
The laborer, whether white or colored, is certainly " worthy of his 
hire." Perhaps larger salaries have sometimes been paid than should 
be paid ; but the adoption of the standard of pay which has been set 
for neighboring masons, weavers or bricklayers cannot be properly en- 
forced everywhere, in determining ministerial wages, any more than 
the standard of wages set for employees in government service can be 
used for this purpose. In some countries one or the other of these 
criteria might do well enough, but in other countries neither ought to 
be commended. The true test in deciding what clergymen's salaries 
should be is this : whatever may be necessary under the circumstances for 
the successful prosecution of the Lord's work. As for fakirism, enough, 
it is thought, has elsewhere been said to secure its condemnation.* 

While then something may be attributed to defects of policy, to the 
scarcity of a native ministry, and especially to the lack of proper tact 

*See pp. 208-217. 



324 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

and effort in developing the liberality of the people, the great cause of 
the pecuniary inability of the native church in our field to carry on its 
own religious work in a satisfactory manner is really its poverty. 

How can this be remedied ? 

In one of three ways : either by increasing the power of our people 
to earn money, or by adding to their numbers, or by bringing into 
the church men of means and consecrated benevolence. 

The first of these has been attempted by many Missions in India as 
a part of their religious duty. 

One method which they have adopted in this attempt, and by far 
the most general method, is that of education. By giving Christians 
who were capable of receiving it intellectual training and secular 
instruction they have fitted them for positions of pecuniary profit 
which they could not otherwise have reached. Some have thus been 
prepared for government service and have found permanent, honorable 
and lucrative employment as village officers, clerks, civil engineers, 
apothecaries, doctors, tax collectors, judges, police inspectors and 
executive officials of various grades.* Others have been qualified for 
the work of teaching and have obtained good salaries in the depart- 
ment of education. Others still have been taught with special 
reference to missionary work and have secured a better living as 
preachers and colporteurs than they could have had in their heredi- 
tary calling. 

Another method adopted for the advancement of the people in 
worldly prosperity is that of industrial training. Some have been 
taught the arts of cooking, tailoring, shoemaking, printing, bookbind- 
ing, carpentry, masonry, and other trades, by means of which they 
have been able to get better wages than they would have got as 
coolies, sweepers or weavers. Sometimes Missions have established 
schools with particular reference to this kind of training. Printing, 
publishing and tailoring for instance, are specialties at the Secundra 
Orphanage, near Agra; carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring and carpet 
weaving at Ludhiana; and printing at Lucknow — just as in our Mis- 
sion we once had an establishment for the manufacture of soap, 
candles, oil and spirits of turpentine. 

A third method is the establishment of agricultural settlements, 
whither people without land, or the means of husbandry, can remove, 

*One Christian in the Punjab Judiciary is said to get now a salary of from 800 
to IOOO rupees monthly. 



HOW NATIVES CAN BE HELPED IN BUSINESS 



323 



and where they can be supplied with every requisite for this business, 
and form not only a self-supporting but a progressive community. 
Such a settlement has been made by the Church Mission at Clarkabad 
in the Lahore District, and another by the Scotch Mission at Sialkot. 
This is one of the devices by which the Roman Catholics have also 
endeavored to draw off our adherents and the adherents of other 
Protestant Missions to their own fold. They have the beginnings of 
an agricultural settlement on the Chenab Canal in West Gujranwala, 
where land can be purchased from 
the government, at a low figure, 
by any one who desires to use it 
for farming purposes. 

Another method proposed is 
the formation of one or more 
native Christian regiments in the 
British army, by enlisting in which 
new converts might secure honor- 
able employment and at the same 
time become a bulwark of strength 
to the Indian Government. 

And, in connection with all such 
efforts, missionaries do what they 
can to get situations for their 
people and furnish them with em- 
ployment or trade. Many native 
Christians are hired by Missions 

themselves either in secular or religious work. Some are accepted as 
private servants. Many are given letters of recommendation through 
which they may obtain some kind of labor elsewhere. The products 
of their hands, too, when needed, find a readier sale among mission- 
aries and their assistants than do the manufactures of aliens. For 
many years, for instance, the Christian Training Institute was fur- 
nished with cloth by the Christian weavers of Zafarwal. 

The drawbacks to these various methods, however, are many and 
noteworthy. 

Candidates for government positions are numerous and good posts 
in the Civil Service are scarce ; and, for policy's sake, Hindus and 
Muhammadans, whose numbers in the country predominate so largely, 
are given the lion's share of such favors. Besides, Christian converts 




SILVERSMITH. 



326 Life and work in India 

from the low castes stand a poor chance for appointments of any kind 
when Brahmans and Sayyids are their rivals. 

Missions on the other hand are handicapped by the lack of means, 
and cannot, as employers, open up a very large market for Christian 
workers, especially those of a high grade ; and, more than this, the 
multiplication of such employees unnecessarily would only rivet more 
tightly the bonds of Missions, prevent them from soon leaving the 
field, and delay the coming to the native church of that very ecclesi- 
astical maturity which is aimed at. 

In manual training, too, it is difficult to secure proper instructors, 
since the freemasonry of native guilds stands in the way of the 
extension of the knowledge of their arts — hereditary caste feeling and 
self-interest uniting to shut out all apprentices who belong to other 
families than their own. Nor are promising pupils abundant. The 
brightest boys we have want higher work, than this, and would rather 
labor with their heads than with their hands. It is only the duller 
that can be induced to enter industrial schools. 

It is hard also for Christian artisans, however skillful and well- 
taught they may be, to get employment, even where the contractor, 
or the overseer, is a Christian. People of different religions do not 
work well together and caste operates with all the exclusiveness and 
the tyranny of trade unions to maintain its monopolies. Hindus and 
Muhammadans, moreover, prefer patronizing merchants, shop-keepers, 
and manufacturers of their own faith ; and, by dealing with others in 
some kinds of business, they would actually violate the laws of their 
respective sects. This leads to practical boycotting and compels the 
Christian community to depend mostly upon itself for patronage in its 
various departments of trade, as well as service. Only as coolies, 
farm hands, weavers and laborers of the lowest grades, or as dealers in 
such detested articles as hides, are its members allowed to work, or do 
business, with any degree of freedom. As far as the Christian popula- 
tion generally is concerned, more respectable avenues of profit are 
closed to their ambition. Thus far, too, the government has not 
seen fit to form regiments of native Christians ; nor, if military ser- 
vice were actually available, would it promise to be of any great bene- 
fit to our people. What would be gained socially and pecuniarily 
would be overbalanced by the unsettled, wild and anti-spiritual life 
which usually characterizes the career of a soldier ; and even money 



GROWTH OF PECUNIARY STRENGTH 327 

earned in this way would probably be wasted in extravagance and fail 
to do the cause of Christ any great good.* 

Until, then, Christians become numerous enough, or rich enough, to 
furnish a large amount of patronage, until they themselves can provide 
employment for a considerable number of mechanics and artisans — in 
short, until as a distinct part of the community they can stand alone 
and be somewhat independent of the rest of the population — little 
can be expected of the effort to elevate them, or at least the mass of 
them, to a higher position in the business or the manufacturing world. 
Indeed, just at present, the trend of their worldly prosperity is per- 
haps downward, rather than upward. Shutting out of the account the 
few who are in Government or Mission employ, the financial condition 
of the great body of our people in their present depressed, unpopular 
and ostracized state, as contrasted with that of the adherents of other 
religions, is very similar to that unhappy spiritual condition which is 
referred to by our Saviour when, after saying, "Whosoever hath, to 
him shall be given and he shall have more abundance," he adds, 
" Whosoever hath not, from him shall be taken away even that he 
hath." Important, indeed, is it to start Christians in the right direc- 
tion as they seek greater worldly prosperity, instruct them as far as 
possible in useful trades, and thus prepare them for every emergency; 
but the full advantage of such a course can be practically reached only 
in a somewhat distant future, when outward circumstances have 
changed. 

The growth of the Christian population, however, will gradually 
help the working-classes in their struggle for a good livelihood by giv- 
ing them a more extensive patronage ; and when this occurs, they will 
have also the means of greater liberality. 

And if this growth takes place to some extent within the bounds of 
organized congregations, it will help ecclesiastical self-support in 
another way — that is, by swelling the aggregate sum of local contribu- 
tions which may become available for the payment of pastors' salaries 
and other expenses connected with the various churches. Other things 
being equal, a congregation of ninety families ought to give twice as 
much for ecclesiastical purposes as one of forty-five families — the esti- 
mated present average number ; while the congregational expenses in 
both cases would be substantially alike. The prospect, however, of an 

* Objections to an agricultural settlement, or a Christian village, are given elsewhere. 
See pp. 274, 275. 



328 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

early result of this character is not very bright ; for growth hereafter, 
for a time at least, will probably be experienced more in lengthening 
the cords of Zion than in strengthening her stakes — in the addition of 
new Christian villages to our present number, rather than in the mul- 
tiplication of Christians in any of our present villages. In many places 
all of that class of people which has heretofore been easily affected by 
gospel influences have already been brought into the church, while in 
almost all villages the local community belonging to this class is com- 
paratively small ; and until other castes and classes begin to show signs 
of speedy conversion we cannot expect any individual congregations 
to become large. For years to come, in all probabilty, our churches 
will generally be " little flocks." 

Whether more can be expected soon from the addition of men of 
means is a question. Such people are confined mostly to the higher 
castes ; and, as heretofore observed, converts of this class generally 
come to us singly, and are therefore compelled to forsake all their 
worldly possessions, as well as everything else that is dear to them, in or- 
der that they may make and maintain a Christian profession. Instead of 
increasing our financial strength, therefore, they become a burden and 
themselves need to be provided for in a worldly point of view. They 
are more helpless by far than our low-caste converts. These can at 
least stay among their own people and make a living for themselves, 
although this living may be a poor one. Occasionally, however, a 
Hindu or a Muhammadan family comes out as a whole from its former 
religious connections, attaches itself to the people of God, and brings 
its property witli it.* And in the future we may hope that such cases 
will be more frequent than they have been in the past. And when 
they become common, and congregations contain a sufficient number 
of this class, of course these congregations will become self-sustaining, 
and the problem of ecclesiastical self-support will be solved. But at 
present this state of things seems to be far distant. 

What then ought to be done to hasten pecuniary self-support as 
rapidly as possible ? What are the practical conclusions forced upon 
us by such a review of the whole situation as we have heretofore 
given ? 

Evidently first we ought to develop as fast as we can the liberality 
of the Christians already attached to our cause. Such plans should be 
adopted as will everywhere secure regular, systematic, hearty, prayer- 

*See pp. 224, 225. 



liu 




(329) 



330 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

ful, intelligent and generous giving. Instruction, exhortation, ex- 
ample, co-operation, subscription lists, assessment, rewards, discipline 
— all the usual means of stimulus — should be employed as occasion 
offers. But, of course, they ought to be used wisely. It will not do 
to press the assessment plan, or disciplinary measures too far ; nor 
should the sliding scale system of giving grants-in-aid from mission 
funds on certain pecuniary conditions be made so inflexible in its ap- 
plication in any instance as to be unjust, or to injure the general cause 
of evangelism. 

And, as a help to this development, every reasonable effort should 
be made to secure the hearty co-operation of foreign and native laborers 
in every department of Christian work. All gaps of alienation existing 
between these two classes should be filled up. Mutual Christian so- 
ciability and friendship should be cultivated. Each class should re- 
gard and treat the other as brethren. Neither should undertake to 
exercise lordship over the other. Especially should those mission 
methods be abandoned against which natives so much protest, and 
which, as a stumbling-block, have hindered so much the liberality of 
men of means. Let natives share with foreigners the direction of 
Christian work, the distribution of mission funds, the employment and 
dismissal of native laborers and the control of all other matters which 
affect so deeply their own interests and the success of that cause for 
which they are earnestly laboring. This will have a marked effect 
upon their generosity and the generosity of their kinsmen. 

Let the education of Christians be also pushed forward as rapidly as 
possible and especially the training of men and women for religious 
work. This will help the cause of self-support in two ways: first, by 
qualifying men for lucrative situations and thus giving them the means 
of liberality, and secondly, by increasing the number of candidates for 
Christian labor and thus diminishing their average salary. 

Again, the work of evangelism should be continued with energy and 
zeal. The idea of waiting until our present congregations are drilled 
up to a high point of liberality and Christian grace before advancing 
much further in the effort to convert sinners, is, in the writer's opin- 
ion, detrimental to the speedy attainment of a condition of pecuniary 
self-support on the part of the native church, although its advocates 
cherish a very different impression. In raising money numbers are 
an important factor. The larger the subscription list the greater the 
aggregate sum of contributions obtained as a general rule. Besides, a 



PRESENT DUTY 33i 

more extensive patronage is thus opened up to Christian trade and the 
whole community made more independent. And especially will evan- 
gelistic success in the neighborhood of existing congregations (organ- 
ized or unorganized) have the effect of hastening the end aimed at ; for 
there any increase of membership which may be secured can be made 
available, as we have just seen, in helping to support a particular 
pastor. 

Efforts to convert men belonging to the upper classes, moreover, 
ought not to be neglected. As already seen, they have more of this 
world's goods than others, and, should they be able to retain these 
after becoming Christians, they would make useful helpers in a 
pecuniary point of view. Hence the advantage of strong pastors to 
man even village churches — men whose influence will be felt among 
all castes. Hence also the importance of zenana work everywhere, 
without which whole households (with all their belongings) are not 
likely to be won over to Christ. 

Industrial training, too, is a department of missionary effort which 
ought to receive some attention. As Christians increase in numbers 
and wealth and are enabled to furnish more patronage, Christian 
mechanics and artisans can find a continually growing field for the 
prosecution of their respective trades, and those interested in their wel- 
fare should see to it that suitably qualified workmen are ready to avail 
themselves of the opportunity thus extended to them. In this way the 
wealth of the whole household of faith is likely to be advanced and the 
probability of its early reaching a condition of ecclesiastical maturity 
increased. 

The financial condition of the natives of neighboring Missions in 
India is not in every respect the same as that of our own, excepting, of 
course, that of the converts of the Punjab Mission of the Church of 
Scotland, which operates in a contiguous field and spends its great 
strength on the same class of people. Most of the Missions round 
about us embrace among their members fewer from the low castes and 
a larger percentage of the well-to-do. Hence the average contributions 
of their people to religious and charitable objects amount to more than 
ours. For a time at least four rupees to every communicant, or about 
half a rupee to every member of the Christian community, was the 
usual sum reported in the statistics of both the Ludhiana Mission and 
the Church Missionary Society of the Punjab. But their congregations, 
as a rule, seem to be smaller than ours, and it is doubtful whether, after 



332 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

all, they are any nearer a condition of pecuniary independence than 
the churches of our own field. The North India Conference of the 
M. E. Church, previous to their great advance movement among the 
depressed classes, reported contributions from natives averaging about 
one rupee to every " full member " and one-third of a rupee to every 
individual embraced in its Christian population — a better showing than 
we have been able to make. But since their great ingathering from 
the low castes began it is probable that their situation resembles ours 
almost exactly.* 

Hence, in all likelihood, much of what has hitherto been said in this 
chapter about our own difficulties and duties will apply with equal pro- 
priety to our India neighbors — if not also to Missions carried on else- 
where among people of like wealth, civilization and Christian training. 

* The native churches in India and Ceylon, under the care of the American Board 
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, gave in 1893-94 an average of about five 
rupees or $1.50 a communicant for all religious purposes, or about two rupees for 
every member of the Christian community. This was about one-tenth of the whole 
cost of the Missions. In Turkey, under the same Board, native contributions 
amounted to one-fifth of the entire sum expended ; in Japan about one-fourth ; in 
China about one-sixtieth. 





CHAPTER XXVII 

ECCLESIASTICAL DEVELOPMENT AND MATURITY— II 

Church Organization — Our Defects in this Particular — Are they Justifiable ? 

I HE progress made by our India Mission in church organi- 
zation has been fully as slow as that made in the matter 
of self-support. 

From the latest statistics furnished by Presbyterial clerks 
we learn that in the three Presbyteries which compose the Synod of the 
Punjab there were, at the close of the year 1894, 12 churches contain- 
ing 27 elders and 1123 communicants. We also learn that two of the 
congregations had only one elder each, so that, according to the rules 
of Presbyterian order, they had lapsed into an imperfectly organized 
state through the lack of the number of elders (two or more) necessary 
to form a full Session, and had fallen practically under the sole man- 
agement of the pastor, or the superintendent of missions. Only 10 
churches, therefore, had a complete Presbyterian organization, and in 
these were only 910 members. The average number of elders, more- 
over, in the total 12 churches, was only a trifle over two, while that of 
our home churches is about four. Looking at the statistics again, we 
observe that there were 4633 communicants in unorganized stations — 
that is, altogether outside of the churches and under the direct control 
of mission superintendents. Hence less than one-fifth of our mem- 
bers had their names upon a church roll and less than one-sixth of the 
whole number were found in churches having a complete organization. 
Were all our communicants organized into churches as large and as 
well-equipped as those which we have mentioned, we could report 
62, instead of 12, congregations and 140, instead of 27, elders.* 

* In the statistics of the Sialkot Mission (of same date), as published in the " Report 
of the Board of Foreign Missions," the number of communicants is given as only 3058, 
and baptized adults as 3289. This is said to be " due to the execution of a mission 
rule requiring the division of the baptized adults into two classes — those who have 

(333) 



334 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

Looking at the dates when our churches were formed, we find also 
that progress towards organization has in recent years been decreasing 
rather than advancing. Three of them were established by the Sialkot 
Presbytery before 1880, five during the next five years, and two since, 
while two during the past six years have been received from other de- 
nominations. 

The state of things thus indicated may perhaps find its parallel in 
other Missions; but it does not, to say the least, accord very closely 
with ideal Presbyterianism, nor indeed with any standard church pol- 
ity, and has therefore been made a matter of frequent remark and re- 
proach by people in the home field. Nor does the writer suppose that 
any person abroad, either foreign or native, can be found who looks 
upon it with entire complacency and does not in some respects deplore 
it. Differences of opinion, however, exist in regard to its necessity. 

Some are disposed to justify it as the best possible condition which 
can be secured under the circumstances. They claim that there are 
not, in many places, men enough fit to hold the position of an elder, 
and hence that there are few mission centers which, as yet, are ripe for 
ecclesiastical organization. Our people, they say, are mostly ignorant, 
weak and incapable of governing wisely ; and those who are qualified 
to assume responsibility are nearly all in Mission employ, and perhaps 
brought there from a distance, and hence not in a proper position to 
rule the churches sympathetically, besides being liable to frequent 
transfer. They think that the present method of receiving and disci- 
plining members, and administering sacraments, through a mission su- 
perintendent, assisted by his helpers and perhaps a panchayat (that is, a 
virtual Session — see p. 271), answers the great end of such work well 
enough, is free from the friction and restriction which might attend 
the existence of rival authorities, and may be safely tolerated until the 

actually communed and those who have not," but does not necessarily imply on the 
part of the latter the lack of the proper qualifications for observing the sacrament of 
the Lord's Supper, but " rather our inability, on account of the extent of our field, to 
offer it to them." 

Hence, even if the Mission's report were made the basis of our exhibit, little 
change need be made in the above remarks, which are founded upon the long-estab- 
lished custom of giving statistics and the only one which has been followed by the 
church at home. All adults who have been baptized on their own profession of 
faith, and thus far give evidence of being Christians, may be virtually classed with 
communicants in discussing the special subject before us, just as they are in giving 
the results of our evangelistic work in Chapter XXI. 



ARE MORE ELDERS OBTAINABLE? 335 

different communities become wiser, wealthier and stronger than they 
are now, and until they acquire more of the elements of independence. 
Some of them, too, may fear the effect of a more extensive organiza- 
tion upon the jurisdiction of a missionary and the constitution of 
higher church courts. 

Others, again, believe that all this is simply special pleading. They 
take a more hopeful view of the situation and have more faith in the 
solidity of the evangelistic work which has been done in our Mission. 
They claim that from among our 212 trained native helpers, a major- 
ity of whom are men, and many of whom have been taught in our own 
schools, several times as many persons as are now in the eldership 
might be judiciously chosen equally qualified to fill that office, and 
that all that can be said against the fitness of any of them for it on ac- 
count of their paid service, their alien birth, their difference of pre- 
vious caste, their lack of oneness with the people, and their liability to 
transfer, might be said with equal force against their fitness for that 
work of instruction, discipline and control as missionary aids which is 
now cheerfully accorded them, and might be said with still greater 
force against the missionary himself. They are confident, too, that 
scores of ordinary members might be found in our villages who have 
received enough instruction to act as religious leaders among their 
brethren, and who, even without much secular education, might (like 
Ditt, Kalu or Kanhaya) make very good ruling elders — men, perhaps, 
who now virtually perform the work of an elder as members of a.pa/t- 
chayat, or assistants of the sahib. They feel, also, that through a 
course of special training others might soon become similarly qualified. 
On general principles, too, they argue that so much delay in forming 
complete organizations is unnecessary. "Is it reasonable," they say, 
" to suppose that God would bring into existence a large Christian 
population, without including among their number persons who could 
be wisely chosen at an early date to act as their ecclesiastical rulers? 
Did not the apostles find such everywhere in their missionary tours ? 
And ought we not to expect the same thing now? Will not the King 
and Head of the church certainly care for his own body and see to it 
that every organ necessary for its nourishment, growth and activity is 
present, and fitted for its appropriate function?" Progressives also 
ask, "Why should we fear the limitation of the jurisdiction of a mis- 
sionary by the formation of more Church Sessions, or the curtailment 
of his individual power by the introduction of more native elders into 



336 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

higher ecclesiastical courts ? By giving the details of work to others 
might he not be released from these for other and perhaps more im- 
portant duties? And, if he is able to sympathize with his India breth- 
ren, might he not still expect his opinion to have great weight in their 
councils and often become prevalent? And even if ecclesiastical ac- 
tion did sometimes run counter to his views, could he always be sure 
that God's will had not been thereby manifested? Might not the na- 
tives often be nearer right than he is himself? And, at any rate, is 
not this mature, independent, self-governing condition of the native 
church the very thing at which we are specially aiming?" 

More success has attended our efforts to organize higher, than lower, 
ecclesiastical courts. A Presbytery (called Sialkot) was formed De- 
cember 18, 1856 — the next year after our Mission was started; and, as 
the result of repeated motions and petitions, two more Presbyteries 
(Gurdaspur and Gujranwala) were, by order of our General Assembly, 
organized from it Oct. 17, 1893, while a Synod (called the Synod of 
the Punjab), embracing all these Presbyteries, was formed Nov. 7, 
1893, by direction of the same Assembly. Thus a gradation of eccle- 
siastical bodies has been secured, through which business may be done 
in accordance with the rules of Presbyterian order ; and, on occasion, 
appeal may be made from a lower to a higher court and, in all ordi- 
nary cases, justice may be obtained without the reference of any mat- 
ter to the General Assembly in America. Through the multiplication 
of Presbyteries, too, these bodies are made comparatively small and 
have a comparatively limited geographical jurisdiction, and can there- 
fore meet often and perform rapidly and effectively the work which is 
given them to do. 

As early as January, 1883, seven Permanent Committees were also 
appointed by the Sialkot Presbytery, somewhat analogous in their 
character to the various Boards of the home church. These were 
termed, respectively, Evangelization, Publication, Education, Church 
Erection, Sabbath School, Christian Beneficence, and Statistics, and 
had special charge of the matters which their names particularly indi- 
cate. The different members of these Committees were chosen for 
terms of various lengths, so as to combine as far as possible rotation in 
office and growing experience. The design of this arrangement was 
to draw the whole work of our mission field as much as possible into 
the hands of the ecclesiastical court and thus secure the harmonious 
and active co-operation of both foreigners and natives ; in other 



OUR DEFICIENCY SUMMED UP 



337 



words, its aim was to develop the wisdom, the energy and the self- 
governing power of the church proper, as it had been established in 
that region. 

Some of these Committees — the first three named — continued to 
act, at least occasionally, down to the year 1892 ; but the rest virtu- 
ally ceased to exist at an early date, and even the first three, after the 
year 1886, gradually lost the greater part of their power. The partial 
failure of this effort at organization was due to various causes — partly 
to the indifference of the members of the Committees or the pressure 
of their other work, partly to the drift of management more and more 
out of the hands of natives and into the hands of the Mission, and 
partly perhaps to other causes. 

But this section of the machinery of the old Sialkot Presbytery has 
been, of course, transferred to the Synod as a higher court, and in the 
future we ought to hear more of its activity and efficiency. 

On the whole, however, our India Church lacks that thorough organ- 
ization which is necessary to its complete independence as an ecclesi- 
astical body. While it possesses all the grades of church courts which 
are essential to its welfare, one of these grades (that of congregational 
Sessions) has been very poorly developed and extended, pastoral set- 
tlements are very rare, ordained ministers are very few, and as a natu- 
ral consequence even the Presbyteries and the Synod lack the mem- 
bership that is needful to insure them a vigorous life. The bony 
framework is there in all its parts ; but there is a lack of flesh and 
blood — of fullness, roundness and muscular development. 




22 




CONSCIOUS STRENGTH. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 




ECCLESIASTICAL DEVELOPMENT AND MATURITY— III 

Self- Governing Power — What it Implies — Fewness of our Ministers — Cause of 
the Deficiency — Character of our Elders and Ministers — Capability of Exercis- 
ing Self-Government — Objections Considered — Advantages Presented — Evils 
thus Removed — Instructive Precedents — Additional Objections Answered — 
Summary. 

ELF-GOVERNING power, the third element of ecclesias- 
tical maturity, implies two things: first, an official body 
of sufficient size and excellence (both intellectual and 
spiritual) to hold it ; and secondly, the opportunity of its 
bringing such power into exercise. 

That the number of our ruling elders is small has already been 
observed, there being only twenty-seven all told in our whole field ; 
and the causes of this paucity have also been discussed.* There is, 
too, a similar scarcity of native ordained ministers. Only fourteen 
of this class of officers had, up to January i, 1895, ever belonged to 
our ecclesiastical body; and of these, three had died, two had been 
suspended, and two had left to join other Christian denominations, 
making the number on our roll, at the end of our thirty-ninth year of 

* See pp. 333-336. 

(338) 



WHY THERE ARE FEW NATIVE MINISTERS 339 

Christian labor there, just seven — that is, one to every 822 communi- 
cants.* 

The causes of our slow progress in the acquisition of a native min- 
istry have been manifold. 

One has been a disinclination on the part of the Mission to receive 
as theological students men of high education and at the same time 
promise them the privileges and the pay which are attached to what is 
called the evangelical (or higher) grade of the ministry — the grade to 
which the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das belonged before he severed his con- 
nection with us last spring. Several applications were made for 
admission under the care of Presbytery as students of theology of this 
grade, but they were rejected, chiefly because it was thought that we 
could not afford the outlay of money involved. 

Another has been an unwillingness to make exceptions in regard to 
the amount of help given students while at the Seminary. Some who 
had had large salaries for years and whose households were expensive, 
wanted to attend the Theological Seminary and thus become eligible 
for ordination, but were not prepared to relinquish their salaries and 
accept in their stead the monthly allowance which was granted mar- 
ried students while at the school ; and a larger scholarship than this 
sum neither the Mission nor the Presbytery was inclined to give them. 

Another cause of the fewness of our native ministers has been a 
lack of men, educated up to the Middle School Standard, having the 
moral and the spiritual qualifications necessary for their admission 
under the care of Presbytery as students of theology and willing to 
enter the common (or lower) grade of the ministry. 

Another has been a dislike on the part of many to ordain a man un- 
til he has had a formal "call " to be the pastor of a particular congre- 
gation and is ready to be installed in that position. In the year 1886, 
when eight of our ministers were ordained, this sentiment, indeed, did 
not have much influence. We were exceedingly anxious then to get 
ministers for purely evangelistic work. But since that time opposi- 

*This proportion still holds good ; for, though another minister has left our body 
since the beginning of the year, it is believed that one of our candidates for the 
ministry has within the same period been ordained and added to the roll. When 
the Statistical Tables were prepared in 1890 there was one native minister to every 
120 communicants in all the Missions of the Punjab, and in the whole of India one 
to every 229. According to Dr. Smith's tables in his " Short History of Christian 
Missions" there was in 1891 one native minister to every 313 communicants among 
&U the Missions of the. world. 



340 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

tion to the ordination of a licentiate* without a call has had the as- 
cendency. 

In connection with this also may be noticed the fact that no 
arrangements are made for the rotary distribution of our licentiates 
among the different churches wanting a pastor, so as to give these 
congregations a chance of hearing them and, if they are pleased, giv- 
ing them a call. 

It must be confessed, too, that superintendents of Missions and 
other foreign laborers have sometimes abstained from encouraging em- 
ployees in their desire to enter the ministry and have even thrown ob- 
structions in the way of their reaching it. This may have been owing 
to their doubt of the qualification of such helpers for this high office, or 
for other reasons not so justifiable. But, whatever their motive, the 
effect has been the same, namely, the hindrance of the growth of our 
theological school and our ministerial force. 

Dissatisfaction with the policy of our own Mission, or that of Mis- 
sions generally, has also, doubtless, had its influence on the natives 
themselves, not only in preventing the entrance of worthy young men 
into Mission employ and the Christian ministry, but also in driving 
away from our ministerial ranks persons upon whom we had actually 
laid the hands of ordination. 

Death, too, which spares neither high nor low, has been at work in 
thinning our ministerial forces. 

But, small as may be the number of our native ministers and licen- 
tiates, little can be said against their character, or their fitness to per- 
form satisfactorily the duties of an ecclesiastical ruler. Their average 
education is good ; their morals are unexceptionable ; their spiritual 
attainments are as high, perhaps, as that of white ministers generally; 
and of their wisdom and their capacity to direct and carry on religious 
work, after they have acquired a fair amount of experience, no one has 
the right to say a disparaging word. Our present elders, likewise, are 
generally capable and trustworthy men, fit associates of their ministe- 
rial brethren. 

In the opinion, therefore, of many in other Missions and of some in 
our own Mission, no valid objection can be made to the bestowal upon 
these two classes (as an organized and united force) of a large amount 
of ecclesiastical and missionary power ; and especially so while they 
have associated with them on an equal footing, in all their higher 

* A licensed preacher, but one not fully introduced into the ministry by ordination. 



SHOULD NATIVES HAVE MORE POWER? 



341 



church courts, foreign missionaries, who would probably continue to 
exert a great influence over them and supply whatever might be 
deficient in their counsels. 

True, it might be said that the great majority of these native minis- 
ters and elders are now employees of mission superintendents and on 
that account might be unduly biased by the opinions and the desires 
of their superiors. The fear of the displeasure of their sahibs and of 
dismissal from their service might lead them to adopt a course or cast a 
vote occasionally which was contrary to their own convictions. But, 
if any danger of this kind 
existed, the present policy 
of autocratic superintend- 
ence which occasions it 
might be easily modified, 
or entirely abolished, and 
such employees might be 
placed under ecclesiastical 
courts, or committees of 
these courts, who would 
determine their standing 
and pay, and their reten- 
tion in, or dismissal from, 
the staff of workers. This 
would give them a freer 
and more independent 
spirit, and lead them to 
act from higher motives. 

It might be said also 
that if the number of or- 
ganized congregations greatly increased, as should be the case, many 
weak brethren would be admitted into the eldership and the tone of 
that element considerably lowered, and that this would affect the 
general character of our ecclesiastical courts. But, as we have already 
seen, there is a considerable body of well-qualified men in the mem- 
bership of the church from which a choice of elders might be made 
and such a result as that which we have mentioned need not necessarily 
follow, and probably would not follow, especially as the church is con- 
tinually advancing in spiritual character and intelligence. And, even 
if the eldership did somewhat degenerate, the balance of good influence 




PARSEE CHILDREN. 



342 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

would be maintained still by that increasing native ministerial force 
whose growth in numbers might be expected to run parallel with that 
of their associates in authority. 

True, the ministerial force itself might degenerate through the low- 
ering of the standard of educational and other qualifications required 
of candidates for the ministry. And here perhaps lies the great dan- 
ger at the present time ; and one of the chief arguments in favor of 
urging the retention of the Middle School standard,* or its equivalent, 
as the lowest possible for the ministry, is the fact that an inferior 
grade of ordained men might so weaken ecclesiastical bodies as to 
render the bestowal upon them of large missionary powers a matter 
of doubtful expediency. So long, however, as the average talent, 
education and character of our native ministers and elders remain what 
they are, and at the same time missionaries are associated with them in 
higher church courts, we may confidently affirm that they will be 
abundantly capable of managing any amount of ecclesiastical business 
and missionary work which may be assigned them. We are also fully 
persuaded that, if the opportunity of exercising self-government under 
these conditions is extended to them, they would in the course of a 
few years attain all that learning, energy, zeal, self-poise, economy, 
vigilance, caution, tact and statesmanlike prudence which will be re- 
quired, on the withdrawal of foreign help, to maintain and extend the 
cause of Christ in their own territory. 

The bestowal of such authority would also do much to abolish evils 
which are found in the mission field and help greatly to bridge over 
that gap of separation which has been formed between foreign mission- 
aries, on the one hand, and native Christians, or at least native 
Christian workers, on the other. 

That evils do exist and that they have produced a division, more or 
less marked, between the two classes mentioned, has already been re- 
ferred to and will not probably be denied by any. Missionaries and 
their native brethren often find fault with one another. And the 
charges made on both sides largely range around, and find their roots 
in, that relation which they sustain to each other as employer and em- 
ployee. The former blame the latter in many cases with laziness, in- 
subordination, indifferent work, " eye-service as men-pleasers," illib- 
erally, a grasping desire to get higher wages and greater privileges, 
a parasitic spirit, indisposition to labor without pay, lack of generous 
* Two years below the Freshman Class of a College. 



DIVISION BETWEEN NATIVE AND FOREIGN WORKERS 343 

spontaneity in Christian efforts to do good, a disposition to hide one 
another's misdeeds, and improper aspirations after more power. The 
latter often blame the former with exhibiting towards them a distant, 
unsympathetic, race-proud, overbearing spirit — with neglect, indiffer- 
ence, uncharitableness, oppression, injustice, an indisposition to yield 
them deserved honor, the failure to give them an equal chance with 
the heathen in the race for education and high standing,* the denial 
of their individual and ecclesiastical rights, the refusal to bestow upon 
them a due share of self-governing power, and disagreeable treatment 
of any who may sympathize with them in their wrongs.")" 

Of course it is not meant that all missionaries or all natives make 
these charges and countercharges, or that there are no seasons of com- 
parative peace, and even good feeling. The unemployed common 
people, especially if they are uneducated, are, as yet, involved in such 
controversies very little — although apparently inclining more and more 
to the side of their own countrymen. Some workers, too, both foreign 
and native, are very prudent and keep as far as possible from this strife, 
or for different reasons gravitate towards the party with which they 
would naturally have less affinity. And even those on both sides who 
are loudest and most frequent in their cries find somehow a modus 
vivendi, and often enjoy such intercourse with one another as proves 
comparatively pleasant to themselves and edifying to the native church 
as a whole. 

But the indictments above recorded are nevertheless pressed with 
sufficient frequency and vehemence to cause much heartburning: and 
no doubt, even admitting of exaggerations, there is a great deal of 
truth in both of them, and certainly as much in the latter as in the 
former. It is only a disposition to be perfectly honest and fair which 
leads the able editor of the Indian Evangelical Review, now an old 
and experienced missionary, to say, "Not only are Europeans, as a 
class, but even missionaries are, with more or less of truth, accused of 
pride, exclusiveness, overbearing manners, cold isolation, hauteur, 
want of sympathy with natives as a class in their attempts to improve 
their condition and to raise themselves in learning, intelligence, inde- 
pendence and social position ; nay more, of jealousy, if not of opposi- 
tion to their praiseworthy efforts to better themselves and those de- 
pendent upon them. Many a missionary finds it hard to be sweet and 
gentle amidst all the worries and ailments of this life, and, in his deal- 

* See pages 168, 173 and 295-297. f See also pp. 66, 67 and 273. 



344 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

ings with the poor down-trodden native, to forget that he belongs to a 
higher race in the scale of civilization and to the conquerors of the 
country. He feels inclined sometimes to speak roughly, if not harshly 
and tauntingly, to them as to his inferiors, as he would never do to 
Europeans in his own country ; and the result is most sad. Their feel- 
ings are hurt and their hearts are alienated." * In other words, a gulf 
of separation is opened up between them. And in our own Mission 
this gulf has been widened and deepened during recent years by events 
which it is unnecessary here to recount. f 

Now it is claimed by other missionaries besides the writer that the 
bestowal of more authority and power upon our ecclesiastical courts, 
where natives and foreigners meet on an equal footing, and the aboli- 
tion of what might be called the autocratic method of superintendence, 
would remove at once a large number of the evils mentioned, close up 
to a vast extent the gap now existing between missionaries and natives, 
stop in a considerable degree the complaints of both parties, and tend 
greatly to heal the divisions of Israel. And so think the natives also. 
And this is why in a memorial to the General Assembly of 1892 five of 
our native ministers asked " that the Presbytery be made what the Mission 
has hitherto been for the native agents — that their employment, salary, 
transfer and dismissal be subject to the control of the Presbytery," J 
although as an alternative they expressed a willingness to accept an 
arrangement by which natives had representation in the Mission itself. 

The granting of more power to ecclesiastical courts would also, no 
doubt, produce other good results. 

For one thing it would almost certainly give a great impulse to all 
the various branches of Christian labor, develop the energies of our 
native people and elevate the tone of piety throughout our whole field. 
Native agents, instead of laboring to please their human superintend- 
ents, would aim more at gaining the approbation of their Divine Master. 
Regarding the work as their own they would enter into all its opera- 
tions with heartiness and would rejoice to labor side by side with their 
foreign brethren. A great ingathering of souls from an ungodly world 
might therefore be confidently looked for. New zeal would be infused 
into the effort to secure a more thorough ecclesiastical organization. 
The purses of the natives would naturally be opened more widely to 
the calls made upon their liberality. Self-support would probably be 

* Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. XII, p. 165. f See pp. 137-139. 

\ At the time when the memorial was sent up, no Synod had yet been formed. 




(345) 



34G LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

pushed to its farthest possible limit. The training of Christians would 
advance even more rapidly than it does now. Presbyterianism as a 
system would be regarded with more favor. No occasion would be 
given other Missions to invade our territory. The tendency to abandon 
our church and our employ would be checked. A spirit of loyalty 
would shield us from every rival and make our forces a unit. Our 
home church would be regarded as a loving mother, and a reign of 
tranquillity would be inaugurated. In short, " the fruit of righteous- 
ness would be sown in peace of them that make peace." 

This policy, moreover, would tend to abolish a great anomaly in 
Presbyterianism, namely, the management of ecclesiastical business 
and the domination of church bodies by a Committee, which in our 
own field we call The Mission. This method of control is contrary 
to the genius of our church polity, or, for that matter, of any church 
polity — an excrescence, indeed, on our whole system of ecclesiastical 
government, and, like a parasite, if allowed to remain for any great 
length of time, is apt to absorb into itself the life of the organism to 
which it is attached and insure for the latter only a stunted growth. 
The sooner, therefore, it can be removed the better. In the early 
days of mission work, indeed, it may serve a good purpose, but as soon 
as the ecclesiastical plant attached to it gets a good start and strikes 
its roots down into the earth, the old stock should be cut away. If 
the latter is left standing beyond its proper day untold harm will 
surely be the result. 

Nor is the course proposed so destitute of precedent as to place us 
entirely on untrodden ground. By granting more power to the na- 
tives in their ecclesiastical capacity, and thus paving the way for a 
higher development of ecclesiastical manhood, we should only be fol- 
lowing the path which missionary management in many other fields 
has already taken and which it will everywhere, sooner or later, be 
compelled to take. Our C. M. S. neighbors in the Punjab have already 
turned over the executive control of their churches and the evangel- 
istic work within congregational boundaries to the Church Council, 
which embraces only two foreign members; and even the financial es- 
timates which are made by this body are practically final. Our Ameri- 
can Presbyterian friends in the Ludhiana Mission have also recently 
thrown much of their work into the hands of their ecclesiastical courts. 
The American Methodists of India have for a long time done their 
main mission business in Conferences, where natives and foreigners 



A GREAT CHANGE NECESSARY 347 

stand on an equality; and even their Mission Finance Committee 
embraces a number of the former, as well as of the latter class. The 
United Presbyterian Presbytery of Egypt has all along managed a large 
part of the affairs of that mission field ; and probably none of its ar- 
rangements, or requests, has ever been vetoed by the Missionary As- 
sociation, which is also established there; although it is true that the 
latter still retains altogether in its own hands certain branches of the 
work. Everywhere, indeed, throughout the world where missionary 
enterprises have made any headway the same question of control either 
has arisen, or threatens soon to arise ; and never yet has it been satis- 
factorily settled except in one way — that is, by admitting natives to a 
share in the exercise of power. A pyramid can rest securely only in 
its natural position. It is worse than folly to try to make it balance 
forever on its inverted apex. 

Even our own Mission, which resisted the prayer of the memorialists 
to the General Assembly of 1892, has found it necessary since that 
time to make concessions to their Oriental brethren. The power of 
dismissing native ministers from mission employ has been taken away 
from individual missionaries and reserved to the Mission itself. More 
liberal terms of a financial character have been offered congregations 
in the case of pastoral settlements ;*grants of money for evangelistic 
purposes have also been promised under special conditions; and one 
of our native ministers, who refused to remain with us unless he was 
given a responsible position and allowed to report directly to the Mis- 
sion as an organized body, was appointed a professor in the Theolog- 
ical Seminary and given the superintendence of a mission field. In 
short a return was made in some degree to the situation which existed 
prior to the year 1886. 

But such modifications of method are too fragmentary, too slight, 
too much hampered by restrictions, too liable to repeal, and too doubtful 
in their spirit, to act as an effectual remedy for the evils which have 
arisen and secure all the benefits of ecclesiastical maturity. A more 
radical and sweeping change is necessary before the breach between 
our foreign and native brethren can be healed and the church of that 
land can be made to " arise and shine " — such a change as that which 
was asked for in the memorial, or that which was afterwards proposed 
by our Foreign Board. And this, top, must be granted heartily, 
hopefully and lovingly — not with the sneer of a cynic, or the reluct- 
ance of a discomfited rival. 

* These terms have recently been made less liberal (1899). 



348 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

Nor do the objections made to this progressive course seem very 
formidable. 

Some appear to think that native ministers and elders cannot be 
trusted with such great powers as it contemplates giving them. But is 
not this a merely gratuitous assumption? And if really true, may we 
not appropriately inquire, Why have these men been ordained officers 
of Christ's church at all? And if it be granted that the whole con- 
trol cannot be surrendered to them, why stand in the way of their ob- 
taining a part and, through experience, becoming qualified for greater 
responsibilities ? They only ask for a share with the foreign mission- 
aries. Besides, in any case, cannot such checks be established as will 
prevent the abuse of power ? 

Others think that every grant of authority to the native ministry 
should be dependent upon, and measured by, the amount of money 
received from the native church. Some would allow ecclesiastical 
courts to control only native contributions and the persons or objects 
that these contributions support. Some, in addition to this, would 
give them also the control of foreign funds proportioned in amount to 
those which come from indigenous sources. Some would refuse them 
the management of either until the native church becomes financially 
self-sustaining. But the reason for these limitations is not clear. 
How can the source whence supplies are derived indicate who are best 
qualified to distribute or use them ? And why should the training for 
ecclesiastical business and wise management be delayed, or hindered 
altogether, by the indifferent question as to where the tools, or the 
materials, with which they operate originate. A Hindu can learn car- 
pentry as well with a London plane as with one made in Calcutta; and 
self-governing power, which means ability and experience in govern- 
ment, is, we have seen, as much a part of ecclesiastical maturity as 
financial self-support. Both, indeed, should advance together so that 
when the latter reaches its needful limit the former may not be want- 
ing. Otherwise, like an untrained youth suddenly made rich, the na- 
tive church might eventually cut a sorry figure and make itself ridicu- 
lous. 

But, some one says, the development of financial self-support m the 
native church is hindered by the grant of self-governing power to her 
official ministry, and the latter should wait upon the former. This is 
a most astonishing statement. The very opposite would appear to be 
the fact. A native ministry, with large powers, and experienced skill 



LACK, BUT HOPE 349 

and hearty spirit, ought to do much to bring the church generally up 
to a high point of liberality — more, certainly, than it can do with scant 
authority, acting in a subordinate position, and weighed down by a 
sense of personal wrong. Nor is a different conclusion favored by the 
results of the policy which has prevailed in past years. 

But discipline would suffer from the change and the moral and 
spiritual tone of our native helpers would be lowered. So exclaims an 
objector. Such, however, has not been the result where the new regime 
has been tried. A member of the Punjab Church Council, a mission- 
ary, says that since power was given to that body discipline has become 
stricter than it was before. The native members feel a responsibility 
which they did not previously realize; and, as a consequence, unfaith- 
ful members and laborers are either improved or weeded out. Nor can 
foreign missionaries ever be in such a position as to equal natives in 
the detection of wrongdoing among people of their own class. 

But further remarks upon this part of our subject are unnecessary. 
What has been said is intended simply to point out a way by which, in 
the opinion of the writer and others, mission churches, and especially 
our own India church, may preserve more fully what they have already 
attained, and advance more rapidly than they have heretofore done 
towards the goal of ecclesiastical maturity and complete success. That 
they are generally a long distance from this consummation will not be 
denied by any. In regard to financial self-support, completeness of 
church organization, training for the exercise of self-government, and 
even the opportunity of properly commencing this training, our Pun- 
jab Synod displays a deplorable lack; and while her lack in these par- 
ticulars is greater, doubtless, than that of most other churches which 
are similarly situated, hardly a mission field can be found anywhere 
throughout the world where complete ecclesiastical manhood and vig- 
orous, independent church life has been reached by converts from 
heathenism or their descendants. 

Let no one suppose, however, that our Christian work in the Punjab 
has been a failure, or that it does not display points of great excel- 
lence. Ecclesiastical maturity, although a highly important matter 
and the great end of all our labor, is, as we have already seen, only 
one of three great branches of mission work, and in the other two we 
have met with abundant success. The training of Christians in every- 
thing except self-government, and especially the training of the com- 
mon people, has been carried on as vigorously and as effectually as in 



350 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



many other fields; while in pioneer evangelistic efforts and fruits our 
Mission stands high above the average. Nor can we suppose that God 
in His providence will not, in His own time and way, and probably 
soon, accomplish the third object, which is necessary to crown the rest 
and bring them to perfection. Should this chapter and the preceding 
aid only a little in bringing about such a desirable consummation the 
writer will feel that they have not been penned entirely in vain. 




WEAVER BIRDS AND NEST. 




'j^^m 




CHAPTER XXIX 




THE OUTLOOK 

Statistics Encouraging — Comparative Progress of Other Religions — Islam Making 
Few Converts — Statement of the /. E. R. — Spurts of Hindu Revival — Caste 
Giving Way — Gross Hinduism Diminishing — Reforms Advancing — Indifference 
of Many Hindus to their Faith — Brighter Record of Christian Missions — 
Splendid Field Among the Lowly — Danger of Compromise — Danger of Neg- 
lecting the Depressed Classes — Danger of Neglecting the Native Christians and 
the Native Church — But Great Hope of Triumph — Not Immediately — Nor as 
The Statesman Forecasts — But in a Century or two — The Church like a Banyan 
Tree. 

S for the general outlook of Missions in India I am glad to 
be able to give a hopeful report. There can be no doubt 
whatever that Christianity is making headway in that 
country. Statistics themselves indicate this. From a total 
of 91,000 Protestant Christians in the year 1851, the number rose to 
138,000 in 1861, to 224,000 in 1S71, to 417,000 in 1881, and to about 
560,000 in 1890. And though the progress made has been very un- 
even, both as regards time and place, no period has been characterized 
by complete stagnation, and no section of the country has been en- 
tirely destitute of substantial advancement. During the nine years 
elapsing between the census of 1881 and the census of 1890, " Bengal 
had an increase of 30 per cent., the N. W. Provinces and Oude 139 
per cent., the Punjab 335 per cent., Central India 132 per cent., Bom- 
bay 92 per cent., and the Madras Presidency 22 per cent."* Natu- 
rally, therefore, we are led to expect similar progress in the future. 
And this expectation is strengthened when we consider the increase in 
the number of workers, both foreign and native, who have been 
specially engaged in Christian labor there. The number of ordained 



xni. 



Protestant Missions in India, Burma and Ceylon — Statistical Tables, 1890," p. 

(351} 



352 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

missionaries advanced from 339 in 1851 to 857 in 1890 ; the native 
ordained agents, from 21 in 1851 to 797 in 1890; and native lay 
preachers, from 493 in 185 1 to 3491 in 1890. Thus a greater and 
greater amount of force is year by year brought to bear upon the cita- 
dels of heathendom, and, other things being equal, we ought to look 
for even larger results in the future than in the past. 

True, other faiths are progressing also. Hindus, Muhammadans, 
Sikhs and Buddhists are all growing numerically stronger; and at every 
census each can muster a larger number of adherents than it did at the 
preceding roll-call. But in many cases their growth is less rapid than 
that of the population generally, while in the case of Christians, and 
especially Protestant Christians, advancement outruns the average, and 
that too by a large percentage. During the ten years which elapsed 
between the census of 1881 and that of 1891, the Sikhs increased 3 
per cent. ; the Parsees 5 per cent. ; the Hindus 10.4 per cent. ; the 
Muhammadans 14.4 per cent. ; the Jains 15.9 per cent. ; the Christians 
of all classes 22.6 per cent. ; Protestant Christians 34.3 per cent. ; and 
Buddhists 107 per cent. ; while the whole population increased 12.5 
per cent. This shows that Christians far excelled all others in ratio 
of increase except Buddhists, whose remarkable growth was due 
more to the addition of Upper Burma, and other Buddhist regions, to 
British East India Territory than to the spread of that faith among 
unbelievers.* 

Even Islam, the only great rival of Christianity as a missionary re- 
ligion, was surpassed by the latter more than 50 per cent, in the ra- 
pidity of its propagation ; and by Protestant Christianity (which after 
all is the only form of our faith that we ought here to take into ac- 
count) it was exceeded nearly 150 per cent. 

Although Muhammadanism advances numerically, in India, more 
rapidly than the general population, many doubt whether this compar- 
ative progress is due in any great degree to inroads upon an outside 
world. The Indian Evangelical Review is especially decided in its 
contradiction of those who assert that this faith makes many proselytes. 
It says, " The London Spectator estimates the number of annual con- 
versions to Islam in India as no fewer than 100,000 ! Canon Taylor 
says 600,000 ! The estimates are so recklessly absurd that to many 
the very idea of formally contradicting them is itself absurd. And yet 
such dense ignorance abounds, both here and at home, that to many a 
* For other statistics, see pp. no, 1 19, 121, 122, 240-243 and Appendix. 



IS ISLAM GROWING? 353 

formal contradiction becomes necessary. And the contradiction we 
unhesitatingly give as full and as formal as we can. After enquiries 
and investigations in various parts of the country, we emphatically as- 
sert that there is not a word of truth in Canon Taylor's sensational 
statements as regards India. He would be within the mark if he had 
said 600 as the utmost figure for all India We do not be- 
lieve that [even] 600 Hindus, Christians or Aborigines have become 
Mussulmans within the last ten years. The only cases coming within 
our knowledge were all cases of seduction — Hindu wives, or widows, 
seduced by Muhammadans, and one or two Christian girls tempted into 
so-called Muhammadan marriages. We have also heard of Muham- 
madan men and women becoming Roman Catholics in the same way ; 
so that possibly as many are lost to Muhammadanism in this way as are 
gained. " * 

Probably the above statements of the I. E. Review are somewhat 
extreme in their sweep, especially as far as the Punjab is concerned ; 
but, one thing is certain : Canon Taylor and those who sympathize 
with him in their strange eagerness to decry missionary effort and 
champion the faith of the false prophet, can find little to justify their 
wonderful assertions. Certain it is also that for every professed Chris- 
tian who is induced to apostatize to Islam fifteen or twenty persons are 
received by Christian Missions from the Muhammadan ranks. | 

Nor does Hinduism make any substantial progress other than that 
which comes from its natural growth. 

Spurts of Hindu revival may, indeed, be observed from time to 
time. Great me/as are held and long-established pilgrimages are ob- 
served with much of the old-time enthusiasm. Lacs of rupees are ex- 
pended every year in festivals, and offerings to the gods, and gifts to 
the Brahmans. £ Here and there temples are erected, or repaired, to 
fulfill sacred vows, acquire merit and insure a happier transmigration 
when death comes. § Revolts against the evangelistic efforts of Chris- 

*/. E. R., Vol. XIV, pp. 369, 370— for January, 1888. 

f See pp. 115-117 and 244-246. 

% On the 18th of September, 1893, 17,000 people, it was said, deposited images 
of Ganpati in the sea at Bombay, at an immense cost of hard-earned money ; and the 
number of licenses granted and paid for to form the processions for this purpose was 
reported greater than it had been for years. 

\ The money given lately by a few individuals to build new shrines at Kotla alone 
(a village on our road to Dharmsala) must have exceeded the contributions of all our 
native Christians for two or three years. 
23 



354 



LIFE AND WORK LN INDIA 



tian missionaries and the aggressiveness of Islam are frequent. New 
Colleges and High Schools are being occasionally established to check 
and counteract the influence of Christian educational institutions. 
Race pride, increasing patriotism and the growing desire for inde- 
pendence (or freedom from foreign control) have done something in 
recent years to strengthen Christophobia. A dogged tenacity in ad- 
hering to ancient but injurious customs, moreover, characterizes the 
temper of the masses, and, in some cases at least, whole neighborhoods 
are found ready to revive the revolting and now unlawful practices of 
hook-swinging, suttee and human sacrifice.* 
But that caste, the greatest obstacle to Christianity, is gradually giv- 
ing way before the pressure of Western civiliza- 
tion and evangelistic effort seems to be the 
opinion of most persons who have made the 
subject a matter of close observation. The 
necessary commingling of many classes in 
schools, in hospitals, in durbars, in railway 
trains, in government service, in military cam- 
paigns — the constant presence of a ruling race 
who are outcaste and yet above caste — the 
ability of another religion than that of the 
Vedas to elevate even the lowest and most 
despised of the people and make them " princes 
in the land" — the broader and purer and 
more benevolent teachings of the prophet of 
Galilee — the preparatory movements of the 
Holy Spirit — are all having their effect upon the ironclad system of 
Manu and beginning to tell in the work of its destruction. And this 
conclusion appears to be correct notwithstanding the acknowledged 
fact that slow progress is being made in the work and that Hinduism 
displays remarkable ability' to modify caste and adapt itself to new 
conditions.*)" 

Quite sure we are, too, that educated and intelligent Hindus, and 
especially those who have come much in contact with missionaries, 
have been led, almost without exception, to abandon the grosser prac- 
tices of the religion under whose influence they were born, and have 

* Only two years ago a book-swinging festival at a village seventeen miles from 
Calcutta was reported in the newspapers. See also pages 110-I16 passim. 
f See pp. 223-225. 




JUGGERNAUT. 



IS HINDUISM GROWING? 355 

been driven, either into complete infidelity, or into a faith drawn 
directly from the Vedas, or into some form of natural religion, or into 
Christianity itself.* 

And most of these persons, too, are ready for those social and legal 
reforms which are suggested and urged by the progress of civilization, 
even though the reforms proposed run counter to time-honored insti- 
tutions and strike at the root of their sacred Shastras, as heretofore in- 
terpreted. The revocation of the betrothal of girls on the death of 
their intended husbands, the establishment of a higher age for the time 
of full consent, the remarriage of widows, the permission to take sea 
voyages without the loss of caste, and other changes of a similar char- 
acter, have for some years been advocated by leaders of Hinduism 
with ever-increasing prospect of success. 

And in some instances even the common people seem to share with 
such Hindus a lack of interest in the faith of their forefathers. "A 
Brahman," says the Messenger, " was complaining bitterly to one of 
our Amritsar brethren the other day. His 'burden ' was the indiffer- 
ence of Hindus towards their own creed. He said, ' These people are 
utterly dead to their own religion. When they see me coming to 
preach to them, they run away. And if by chance I can get hold of 
them unawares, then, as long as I am there, they say, Very good ! 
Very good ! But the moment my back is turned, they say, The old 
ass/' " 

" Straws " of this character help to explain and confirm the statisti- 
cal fact already given that in actual numbers Hinduism, notwithstand- 
ing its enormous advantages, had in ten years fallen two per cent, be- 
hind the rest of India's population in rapidity of increase. 

Contrasted with the progress of other faiths, therefore, the growth of 
Christianity in that country stands forth in striking and hopeful 
prominence. Neither Hinduism nor Muhammadanism can show such 
a brilliant record. 

The fact, too, that there are in India so many aborigines and low- 
caste people is a guarantee that our efforts to spread the gospel there 
will continue to prosper. This class seems now to be ready to flock to 
the Saviour in great masses; and, even if there were no other persons 
on whom we could make an impression, the prospect of growth from 
such a source alone, if proper means are used to secure it, is enough 
to fire the Christian heart with enthusiastic hope and burning zeal. 
* See pp. 114, 117, 151, 167, 175 and 238. 



356 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

50,000,000 of these people (as they have sometimes been estimated), or 
even only 20,000,000 of them, thoroughly converted to Christ, would 
in themselves form a church of mighty proportions ; while the leverage 
which would be secured through them for the conversion of the rest of 
the population would be one of incalculable power.* 

Several dangers, indeed, confront the Christian cause in India and 
threaten to retard, or entirely obstruct, its advancement. 

One is the danger of detestable neutrality on the part of its repre- 
sentatives and of compromise with the opposing faiths. In their eager- 
ness to be perfectly fair, to do full justice to the excellencies of Hin- 
duism or Islam, to extend charity as far as possible towards even idol- 
aters, and to uphold the principles of the science of comparative re- 
ligion in its most recent and most progressive form, some who aspire 
to be leaders in missionary work are inclined to magnify unduly the 
ideals of false religions and lower the importance of the distinctive 
features of the Christian religion — thus reducing all faiths, as. far as 
possible, to a common level, or, what is equally bad, blending them to- 
gether in a resultant ideal which can be nothing else than a sublimated 
form of natural religion. Against this tendency the champions of the 
cross must set their faces like a flint if they expect to make any prog- 
ress, or even to hold their own. The strength of Christianity lies in 
its peculiar characteristics, and between it and every non-Christian 
system an irrepressible conflict must ever be recognized. Its motto, 
like that of the old Romans, can be nothing else than this, Carthago 
delenda est, "Carthage must be destroyed. " The least disposition to 
parley, or flatter, or compromise will certainly end in disaster. As early 
Christianity w r as sadly corrupted and weakened in the course of time by 
ancient heathenism, so by relaxing our attitude of opposition to false 
religions in India there is danger of a similar and even a worse result. 
Hinduism has always displayed wonderful powers of resistance and re- 
cuperation. Even when overthrown and almost destroyed it has risen 
again and resumed its original sway. Buddhism could not hold her 
own before its constant and well-directed attacks, but, driven from al- 
most every part of her native land, was compelled to find a home in 
distant regions. Hinduism at an early date paralyzed all efforts made 
by ancient missionaries to spread the gospel in India. It recovered 
speedily from the wounds inflicted upon it by Roman Catholic emis- 
saries. It resisted with remarkable success the inroads of Muhamma- 
*See pp. 1 1 7-1 19, 242-248. 



DANGERS THREATENING MISSION WORK 



357 



danism and even impressed upon this intruder something of its own 
character. And who can tell but that, through the aid of flattery or 
concessions on our part, it might eventually make the Christian church 
of these times one of its own castes, or infuse into it some of its own 
characteristics, or allure it into the adoption of a defective and soul- 
ensnaring ideal, or lead it to abdicate in favor of a more charitable 
and " more rational " faith ?* 

Another danger is that of neglecting the open door for the gospel 
which has been opened up among the depressed classes. Thank God, 




ON THE JHELUM, KASHMIR. 

many are entering this door and obtaining the reward that has been 
providentially prepared for their hands. This is one of the most 
hopeful signs of the present day. But others have failed to do so ; 
and others still, commencing this lowly work and apparently growing 
tired of it, are losing their first zeal and directing their chief attention 
to more respectable but less fruitful labor. In my opinion the speedy 
conversion of India depends largely upon the earnestness and the ef- 
ficiency with which efforts are now made to evangelize the aborigines, the 
outcaste and the low-caste. In this direction lies the path of success. 
*Seepp. 113-115, 198-201. 



358 LIFE AND WOkK IN INDIA 

Still another danger is this : that Missions, prompted by envy, 
covetousness or some other motive, may forget Christian courtesy so 
far as to invade one another's fields, and, through their ravages and 
contentions, scandalize the name of Christ, throw His work into con- 
fusion and hinder the progress of the gospel. Sad, indeed, has been 
the history of such interference heretofore, and scarcely any more ef- 
fectual way of crushing a holy cause in its infantile state can be de- 
vised. Yet there is fear of such invasion — and that, too, not only by 
such erratic and lawless skirmishers as Plymouth Brethren and soldiers 
of the Salvation Army, and such avowed opponents as Roman Catho- 
lics, but also by bodies which claim a place among the regular forces 
of the church, are professedly concerned for the welfare of the entire 
Protestant host, and would repel, if they could, the charge of adopt- 
ing dishonorable methods in their missionary warfare. * 

A fourth danger threatening missionary work in India, and perhaps 
the greatest of all, is that of neglecting native Christians and failing 
to develop and thoroughly establish the native Christian church. 
Humanly speaking the conversion of India by foreign agents alone, or 
even chiefly, is an impossibility. It is to the people of India them- 
selves that we must look for the great apostles of that country — for the 
leavening influence which will permeate its every part and make it a 
Christian land. And the sooner this principle is fully accepted and 
acted upon, the speedier will that end come for which we are all 
praying, f 

The great duty of the present crisis in India Missions, then, is to 
emphasize every effort which can be put forth to educate and edify the 
people of God there, and to adopt every expedient which will not only 
bind native Christian laborers to missionaries with sincere and ardent 
affection, but which will give them a name and an influence in their 
own land. 

No greater mistake, therefore, can be made than that of despising 
native converts, neglecting their culture, discouraging church organi- 
zation, undervaluing a native ministry, dishonoring pastoral authority 
and withholding from ecclesiastical courts the exercise of large mission- 
ary powers ; and especially so if greater attention be at the same time 
paid to the culture of non-Christian Brahmans and Sayyids, because, 
forsooth, they are high-caste. 

The fact, too, that " New India," with its aspirations after greater 

*See pp. 89, 95, 96, 220. f See pp. 87, 167, 195 and 196. 



WHEN WILL INDIA BE CONVERTED ? 



359 



freedom of all kinds and its hope of the creation of a reformed religion 
to take the place of old faiths, is beginning to raise its head, should 
only make us all the more careful to avoid this mistake. Of one thing 
we may rest assured : that Mission or Church in India which does not 
recognize the spirit of patriotism and independence now rising so rap- 
idly there among all classes of educated people and that spirit of con- 
scious manhood now affecting so many of the more advanced Chris- 
tians of the country, is doomed to take a secondary, or a third-rate, 
position in the advancing columns of the Redeemer's army — to be 
shorn of many of her brightest and best leaders — to lose a large part 
of the rank and file of her soldiers — perhaps, to be overrun or entirely 
swallowed up by wiser and more efficient, though mayhap less scrupu- 




INTERIOR OF A PUNJABI PRIVATE COURT. 
{From a Punjabi drawing.) 

lous, less courteous and less honorable, corps. The prosperous and 
finally triumphant missionary bands will be those which early appro- 
priate and thoroughly attach to themselves the growing life and 
manly vigor of an aspiring native Christian community — which love to 
exalt the native church and set a crown upon her head.* 

And we have faith that most Missions will recognize, sooner or later, 
this road to success and avoid not only the last danger mentioned, but 
all the others to which we have referred. This is one of the reasons 
why we believe that Christianity will continue to advance in India. 

Present indications in the field, however, do not encourage the hope 
which some cherish, that that country will be generally brought to 

* See preceding chapters, here and there. 



360 LIFE AAD WORK IN INDIA 

Christ in this generation, or even in the next generation. Such a re- 
sult would be so unlike what has heretofore occurred that it could not 
take place without the aid of divine power little short of the miracu- 
lous.* 

Nor, on the other hand, is The Statesman, a secular paper of India, 
right perhaps in postponing the triumph of Christianity there to a 
period several centuries in the future — however sincere and valuable its 
testimony may be to the excellence of the work already done. It says : 

" ' New India' probably thinks but lightly of the work that is being 
done by Christian missionaries. These missionaries, however, are 
doing exactly that work which ought to be done by them. They are 
destroying caste by the simple but. effective method of attracting to the 
Christian fold those who are the heaviest sufferers from the cruel in- 
equalities of caste. They are destroying the Hindu Pantheon by hold- 
ing up, in opposition to it, a more beautiful and encouraging picture 
of the Unseen World. The groups of native Christians, scattered over 
India, occupy in the midst of Hinduism a position exactly analogous 
to the early Christian churches amidst the idolatries of Imperial Rome. 
Not more than eighty years have passed since Christian Missions have 
been at work in India systematically and continuously, and the prog- 
ress made during that time has been, we take it, quite on a par with 
the progress made during a like time among the cities of Imperial 
Rome. Four hundred years divided the birth of Christ from the pro- 
mulgation of the Imperial decree directing the abolition of Paganism 
throughout the empire ; and assuming that British rule endures in India 
for the next three centuries, who can doubt that Christianity at the end 
of that time will embody the strongest spiritual power existing in the 
country." f 

But the writer of these pages feels compelled by the evidence before 
him to place the ultimate triumph of Indian Christianity at a point 
somewhat midway between the present time and the year 2300. He 

*The writer does not feel justified in assuming that either the church at home or 
missions abroad will be soon visited by an effusion of the Spirit much greater than 
that which might be expected from past experience. His deduction is made from 
facts of history and observation — including of course the well-established fact that 
zeal for missions and laborers in missions are, within certain limits, constantly in- 
creasing. More than this he considers simply speculation. God may have miracu- 
lous things in store for the remaining years of this century, or this generation, or He 
may not. We do not know. 

f Quoted in the Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. XIV, pp. 37 1, 372. 



AN ENCOURAGING PROSPECT 36i 

hopes that the next century may witness it ; but he would not be sur- 
prised to find that it is delayed for half a century, or even a whole cen- 
tury, longer. 

However, even The Statesman' s forecast is encouraging and all the 
more so as, with the progress and final success of the gospel in India, 
will in all probability be associated the growth and complete establish- 
ment of Christianity everywhere — a result which has been appropri- 
ately illustrated by the growth of one of India's favorite trees: 

" The Banyan of the Indian isle 

Spreads deeply down its massive root, 
And spreads its branching life abroad, 

And bends to earth with scarlet fruit ; 
But when the branches reach the ground, 

They firmly plant themselves again : 
They rise and spread and droop and root, 

An ever-green and endless chain. 

" And so the Church of Jesus Christ, 

The blessed Banyan of our God, 
Fast-rooted upon Zion's mount, 

Has sent its sheltering arms abroad ; 
And every branch that from it springs, 

In sacred beauty spreading wide, 
As low it bends to bless the earth, 

Still plants another by its side. 

M Long as the world itself shall last, 

The sacred Banyan still shall spread, 
From clime to clime, from age to age, 

Its sheltering shadow shall be shed. 
Nations shall seek its pillar'd shade, 

Its leaves shall for their healing be : 
The circling flood that feeds its life, 

The blood that crimsoned Calvary." 





^5S*s5J» 






THE MULTIPLYING BANYAN TREE. 



CHAPTER XXX 

THE REFLEX INFLUENCE OF MISSIONS 

Physical Effects — Nervous Exhaustion — Fret and Worry — Shortened Life — Intellec- 
tual Stimulus — Literary and Linguistic Culture — Social Effects — Influence on 
Patriotism — And on Piety — Trial of Temper — Opportunities for Private Devo- 
tion and the Study of God's Word — The Atmosphere of Heathenism — Burns' 
Experience — Habit of Suspicion — Reflex Influence of Autocratic Power and 
Secular Work — Discouragements — Conflicts — Favorable Side — First Impetus of 
Zeal — Divine Promises — Consciousness of a Great Work — Prayers at Home — 
Rapid Conversions — Opportunity for Compassion — Fraternal Intercourse — Dis- 
gust at Heathenism — Active Evangelism — Liberality — Prospect of Reward — 
A Summing Up — Qualifications of an Indian Missionary — Reflex Influence of 
Missions on the Home Church. 




]HAT influence has missionary life in the Punjab upon mis- 
sionaries themselves? How does it affect their physical, 
intellectual, social, moral and spiritual nature? This is a 
minor question ; and yet it is one which is often thought 
of and sometimes asked. An answer may be interesting to most of 
our readers. 

Of the physical effects of the climate of India something has been 

said already in the fourth and fifth chapters. Compared with that of 

England or the United States undoubtedly the climate of the Punjab 

has a deleterious effect upon the bodies of Europeans and Americans. 

(362) 



NERVOUS EXHAUSTION- 363 

This is due partly to the fact that such persons there are living outside 
of the conditions under which they were born and reared, and partly 
to the unhealthy character of the country itself. The extreme heat of 
certain seasons, the prevalence of malaria after the rains, the filthy 
state of many towns and villages, the difference of temperature between 
day and night, the unavoidable exposure to contagion where people 
are so numerous and careless as they are in India, and the lack of 
many medical and recuperative appliances when persons are ill — all 
tend to increase the number, the virulence and the tediousness of at- 
tacks from disease, as well as the liability to death. 

The character of missionary work, too, tends in the same direction. 
No other form of labor so exhausts the nerves as that which draws on 
our sensibilities, our sympathies and the yearnings of our hearts. 
Mere muscular, or intellectual work may be protracted much longer 
than this without serious injury to the nervous system. But mission- 
ary labor makes a heavy draft upon the feelings of a worker. Even 
the poverty and physical sufferings of a degraded people appeal very 
strongly to his pity and compassion. And much more, of course, do 
their spiritual needs. The chief aim of a missionary, indeed, is to de- 
liver the ignorant, the degraded and the lost from everlasting death ; 
to develop among weak believers a higher spiritual life; to establish 
the church on everlasting foundations. Without a vast amount of 
emotion this labor would appear hypocritical pretence, a mere sham. 
But the very earnestness which it requires and includes makes it ex- 
hausting, and soon brings weakness and disaster to the most delicate 
part of our bodily frame. 

Overwork also, as a matter of course, increases this effect. Yet it is 
hard for Christian laborers on mission ground to avoid overwork. 
The number of duties demanding immediate attention appear to them 
almost boundless ; and there is no one but themselves and their native 
helpers to perform them. The temptation to labor beyond their 
strength, therefore, is almost irresistible. But this cannot be done 
without incurring the penalty which is always attached to such a 
course. 

Fret and worry, however, have more to do with collapses of the ner- 
vous system and the gradual breakdown of our bodily energies than 
genuine work. The latter is natural and lies in the direction in which 
our powers are made to operate. With well-oiled machinery we may 
accomplish much of it. But the former run counter, or crosswise, to 



364 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

the natural movements of the soul, produce friction, and wear terribly 
even the physical organism with which our invisible part is so 
mysteriously connected. Yet the missionary has a great deal of such 
worry and fret. He is troubled by the opposition and the persecution 
of heathen men, by the deceitfulness of many inquirers, by the weak- 
ness of his native brethren, by conflicts with his missionary associates, 
by bad news from home, by his own mistakes and imperfections, and 
by the failure of his various plans for self-improvement or the advance- 
ment of Christ's kingdom.* 

Parallel cases of like work and worry may be found, no doubt, in 
the home field. Almost every minister of Christ, indeed, who is 
earnestly devoted to his calling, may find himself overwhelmed with 
duties, burdened with cares and vexed with the ungodly conversation 
of the wicked ; and in many instances results follow his ministrations 
similar to those which we have been describing. But beyond the 
bounds of Christian civilization such cases are more frequent, and the 
conditions of good health and long life in ministerial work less com- 
mon, than they are in Europe or America. 

Nor is this a matter of mere speculation. Statistics can be brought 
to prove it. From Badley's ''Indian Missionary Directory" (edition 
of 1886) we learn that the average length of the ministries of 377 or- 
dained men who had previously labored and died in India was a little 
less than sixteen years. But the average length of the ministries of 
the 216 clergymen of the United Presbyterian Church of North Amer- 
ica who died during the twenty years preceding April, 1894, was 
twenty-nine years and eight months, or about eighty-seven per cent, 
greater ; and there is no reason to suppose that the United Presbyterian 
Church, in this respect, has been an exceptional one among the differ- 
ent denominations of the United States. Possibly this comparison 
might be modified somewhat by including in our calculations the 
ministries of those missionaries who, on account of ill health, old age 
or other causes, left India and closed their lives elsewhere. But, 
granting the utmost that could reasonably be demanded by this con- 
sideration, we should probably find that the length of time which the 

*An excellent article on " Missionary 111 Health " was published by the Rev. 
Wallace Taylor, M. D., of Japan, in the Chrysanthemum of June, 1S83, and is 
copied in the Indian Evangelical Review of January., 1884. It gives remedies 
and suggestions also which are very good. To this article the writer is indebted for 
some of the ideas which he has just presented. 



INTELLECTUAL STIMULUS 365 

foreign missionaries can hope to spend in religious labor in that coun- 
try is not more than two-thirds of what they might spend in a Western 
clime and in a Christian country. And this means, of course, a cor- 
responding increase in the frequency of their ailments, weaknesses and 
bodily pains. 

On their intellectual part, missionary life has in many ways a stimu- 
lating effect. 

The opportunities which they have for travel enable them to see 
much of the world and the people of the world. They observe many 
scenes, pass through many experiences, witness many incidents, and 
come in contact with many races which, except for this, would have 
forever remained to them comparatively unknown. New varieties of 
food, speech and living, new styles of architecture, dress and manners, 
new modes of thought and religious worship, new kinds of civilization 
or barbarism, arrest their attention, broaden their views and arouse 
their mental activities. A journey to the field of labor and one year's 
residence there are equal to the reading of a good-sized library in their 
effect upon one's intellectual growth and his acquisition of knowledge. 

And the studies which missionaries are required to undertake in the 
country itself have a similar effect. True, these are largely different 
from those which ministers generally pursue in the home field. The 
questions of science, philosophy, Biblical criticism, theology, national 
reform, homiletic method and even Scripture interpretation, which 
occupy so much of the time and thought of Occidental clergymen re- 
ceive little attention in missionary lands. But in their place come the 
study of Oriental tongues, philosophies and religious systems, the ef- 
fort to grapple with error in forms as subtle and elaborate as any that 
ever arose in Europe, the perplexing problems of church life in its new 
and unsettled state, the preparation of a sound religious literature and 
the acquisition of all that varied geographical, historical, political and 
ethnological information which is necessary to give the Lord's servants 
a thorough equipment in that part of His vineyard. The attainments 
of Carey, Wilson, French and others show that the intellectual giants 
and learned men of the church are by no means all confined to coun- 
tries where Christianity is thoroughly established, but that they are 
found also around campfires in the forefront of the army of God. 
Possibly, indeed, missionaries as a class may stand higher in such at- 
tainments than ministers of equal length of service do at home. 

Nor are they destitute of the culture which comes from the perusal 



366 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

of the current literature of our time. Of the British or American 
daily newspaper they indeed see little. That record of accidents, 
crimes, party conflicts and political movements which it contains is 
for the most part hid from their eyes. Only the great events of 
Europe and the Western Hemisphere rise high enough for their obser- 
vation. But they receive a fair proportion of the standard papers and 
periodicals of the day, more perhaps than persons of a similar calling 
take in the home field ; and whatever knowledge they get of the 
world's progress is of the choicest and most important character. 

Moreover, their opportunities of improvement even in the English 
language are by no means few. As all the literature of this tongue 
which they read is select, so, as a consequence, the best models which 
it can furnish are ever before them ; while the influence of such pub- 
lications is not neutralized by anything trashy. And in most cases 
the same is substantially true of their English society. Missionaries 
themselves are universally persons of some education before they go 
out to the field. And, beyond their own circle, few are found to con- 
verse with them in their mother tongue but those who are their equals, 
or superiors, in every kind of culture. Their tendency, therefore, is 
to improve, to slough any defects of speech which they may possess 
and rise to a higher type of style. Slang, bad grammar and bad pro- 
nunciation are not tolerated ; and even that nasal drawl which is so 
characteristic of many Americans and so offensive to British English- 
men is to some extent lost. The exactness, too, with which our 
tongue has to be taught in the mission schools of India helps to 
develop accuracy of speech, as also does the critical habit which is 
acquired in learning other languages in that polyglot land. Mission- 
aries, moreover, write more books and more articles for public print 
than the average clergyman does at home and in this way cultivate 
their literary powers. True, the habit which they have, in talking 
with one another, of interlarding English conversation with foreign 
words and phrases, and also that of thinking a great deal in strange 
tongues, to say nothing of other causes, sometimes give them a hesi- 
tating manner and awkward phraseology when first called upon to 
address British or American audiences ; but probably the percentage 
of first-class English writers and speakers among them is as high as 
that which can be found among people of a similar calling in the 
home field. Certainly as long as they can produce such orators as 
Drs. Duff, Lansing, Jessup. and Phillips, and such authors as Paton, 



SO CIA L EFFE C TS—PA TRIO TISM 



367 



Gordon, Dennis, Miss West and Mrs. Maxwell, they need not be 
ashamed of their brethren in any department of rhetoric. 

The social effect of missionary life on those who engage in it may 
be considered good or bad according to the standpoint from which it 
is viewed. As a training school for "society " in the technical sense 
of that word such a life is very poor. Except in rare cases, few 
opportunities are given, or at least embraced, for experiences of this 
nature. The opportunities had in India, however, whenever they do 
occur, are of a superior character. Perhaps no class of people in the 
world, aside from aristocracy or royalty themselves, are stricter in 
their adherence to good form, when they meet in a social way, than 




PUNJABIES CAMPING FOR THE NIGHT. 
{From a Punjabi drawing.) 



Anglo-Indians, although their society rules differ very much from 
those which prevail in America. But the missionary's chief com- 
panionship is found among his fellow-laborers, foreign and native, 
and this, of course, lacks many of the characteristics of fashionable 
life. Still, on that very account it is best for his work. It trains him 
to reach powerfully many classes of men in that needy land.* 

How is it with your patriotism? some one asks. Does your love 
of your owri country die out through a sojourn in foreign lands? By 
no means. The Fourth of July, the Stars and Stripes, the prosperity 
of the American Republic, continue as dear to us as ever. And this, 
too, not only because it is our native land, but also because we think 
it the best country upon earth, a country where nature has lavished 

* See pp. 63-67. 



368 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

her greatest favors, civilization is working out her most wonderful 
problems and Christianity is achieving her grandest triumphs — the 
leader, indeed, in the great procession of advancing humanity. But 
our patriotism acquires chastening and correction by residence abroad. 
We see the excellencies of other governments and the defects of our 
own better than at home. We see, too, that universal suffrage and 
republican institutions are adapted only to a people of high culture 
and Christian civilization, that in many cases a different kind of rule 
answers the great end of national life better than that which has 
properly been adopted in the United States. We are also led to see 
clearly that, among the people of every nation and over every other 
human government, there is a kingdom established — higher and better 
than them all, and one which demands our supreme allegiance — a king- 
dom whose dominion is everlasting and whose progress will continue 
until it fills the whole earth. To this universal and perpetual empire 
we become more strongly attached. 

It must be admitted also that as years roll on and home friends pass 
away, as acquaintance with American affairs diminishes, and foreign 
associations grow stronger, as Oriental habits become fixed and 
interest in mission work acquires the strength of a second nature, little 
desire remains in the heart of a foreign laborer to return to the land 
of his birth, unless, indeed, it be for the sake of his children. Many 
would rather live and die where they have worked so long and be 
buried among the people to whose eternal good they have been 
specially devoted. That is more like home than any other spot on 
earth. 

Whether missionary life is calculated to have a good or a bad effect 
upon the piety of those who engage in it is a question upon both sides 
of which much can be said. 

No doubt the climate is apt to try one's temper. During the dry, 
parching heat of May and June, or the sultry, steaming heat of July 
and August, Satan finds many opportunities for a powerful attack upon 
suffering, unwary souls. It is hard then to maintain that sweetness 
and equanimity of spirit which ought to characterize a Christian 
laborer. Piety transplanted from a temperate to a tropical zone is 
likely to wither when the thermometer rises to 118 degrees in the 
shade and 170 in the sun. Provocation from human sources, too, is 
sure then to be at its most active point. If outbreaks or storms ever 
arise among either natives or foreigners they are certain to occur in 



EFFECT ON THE TEMPER AND PRIVATE DEVOTION 369 

the summer season. Even if missionary correspondence is undated, 
an expert might often discover by its very tone during what part of 
the year it was written. Hot season letters are frequently " tales of 
woe." "A good many vexations of late " — " I am too much out of 
humor to write" — " This hot moist weather seems to put me all out 
of sorts entirely. I have very little appetite, and my stomach seems 
all out of order, and my nerves are not in good shape at all." These 
are specimens of the summer communications which we get. 

The diseases of the country, too, produce a peculiarly harassing 
effect upon the temper. Everybody knows how liver complaint, dys- 
pepsia, malarial fever, and affections of the nervous system tend to 
depress the spirits of a patient and make him irritable. Despondency, 
gloom, fault-finding, and sensitiveness are likely to find in such a vic- 
tim a ready soil. And similar to this is the effect of that physical and 
mental exhaustion which comes from overwork, to say nothing of the 
worry and fret which arise from many causes and of which we have 
already written in this chapter.* 

The lack of suiiable opportunities for devotion may also be men- 
tioned as one of the unfavorable conditions under which missionaries 
cultivate their heavenly graces. Of the pious Robert Murray McCheyne 
it is said that his morning hours were set apart for communion with 
God and the nourishment of his own soul; and such has been the 
practice of almost all who have ever become rich in spiritual experience. 
But during a great part of the year this practice is an impossibility in 
India. Most of the morning hours there must be devoted to other 
work than private contemplation. Nor do the foreign workers hold 
many devotional meetings among themselves for mutual profit, their 
time being so fully occupied with other matters, to say nothing of their 
scattered state. Nor do they ever get a chance of attending those 
great conventions and revival meetings, where religious feeling is 
exalted to a lofty pitch, and where so many in Christian lands rise to 
higher and higher planes of spiritual attainment, and receive impres- 
sions for good which remain while life lasts. \ For many years, too, 
young missionaries labor under the disadvantage of worshiping God 
on almost all public occasions through a language which is imperfectly 
understood. This distracts their thoughts, obstructs their apprehension 
of the meaning of a discourse, and, in every exercise, hinders that 
freedom of intellectual and emotional movement which is necessary to 
* See also Chapters IV and V. 
24 •}■ See Note 4 on p. 415. 



370 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

delightful and profitable worship. The rays of divine truth and love 
shine but dimly through such a hazy medium and exert but half their 
gracious power upon a waiting soul. How often have missionaries 
longed, not only for those grand congregations and inspiring move- 
ments at home, which lift men out of and above themselves, but also 
for songs and prayers and sermons in their mother tongue ! Urdu, or 
Punjabi, seems like an interfering stranger, an ally of Satan.* 

As a general thing, too, ordained ministers in a foreign mission field 
give less time to the close study of God's word than ministers in 
Christian lands, and this tends to prevent the expansion of their 
religious life. Every one who has been an American pastor knows 
what a stimulating effect he receives from the weekly preparation of 
sermons for his people, how his faith is deepened and his spiritual 
character broadened by the prayerful, studious investigation of Bible 
truth and the effort to bring his researches with clearness, warmth and 
power home to his hearers. Each sermon is, or at least should be, a 
stepping-stone to heaven. It 13 thus that God sanctifies his laborers as 
well as their congregations. Missionaries have little leisure for this 
work. Their discourses are almost always prepared hurriedly, often 
on an itinerating march or on the last day of the week, and can very 
seldom be thought out, or written down, in every detail. They are 
compelled to preach too frequently, and perform too many other duties, 
to delve very deeply into the meaning, or follow out very fully the 
bearing, of Scripture texts. Nor is it often necessary for them to 
pursue such studies. Most of their preaching is to the unconverted, 
and they need only present the first principles of the doctrine of Christ. 
But this is a disadvantage as far as their own spiritual improvement is 
concerned. f 

The atmosphere of heathenism is also against the religious advance- 
ment of missionaries. This was felt very much by the Rev. W. C. 
Burns in China. "What need," says he, "have I of the presence of 
the Lord of the Sabbath in a land like this, that I may not lose my 
own soul in seeking to save the souls of others ! . . . Were it not my 
abiding conviction that the Lord hath sent me here, and that His 
grace is made sufficient for us in all circumstances, I would some- 
times be overwhelmed when regarding the state of this blinded people 
and the danger to which my own soul is exposed in dwelling among 

*See also pp. 86, 87, 140. f See pp. 156, 157. 



HABIT OF SUSPICION ENGENDERED 371 

them." * And well does his biographer remark, "Most of us little 
think how hard a thing it must be for a solitary wanderer in such a 
land as China to maintain the life of Christian godliness in the very 
atmosphere and element of heathenism — without a Sabbath ; without 
Christian fellowship or brotherhood ; without a Christian face to look 
into, or a Christian hand to grasp; with an utter disbelief of all 
Christian truths, and of everything belonging to a higher world, looking 
out from the eyes of all around him ; with nothing left to feed the 
inner springs of the soul but his Bible, his closet (if indeed he can 
command a closet), and his God. The brightest lamp will burn dim 
in an impure and rarified atmosphere." f These words might be 
applied to life in India now except so far as they are modified by the 
existence there of a measure of Christian society and the beginnings 
of Christ's Kingdom. 

One bad habit which is likely to be engendered and strengthened 
in the heart of a missionary by this condition of the people is a dis- 
trust of persons with whom he comes in contact, a suspicion that others 
are acting from bad motives and guilty of bad acts. First, perhaps, 
he discovers the treachery and dishonesty of servants; then the false- 
hood and trickery of tradesmen ; then the untrustworthiness of almost 
every Hindu, Muhammadan or low-caste man with whom he has any- 
thing to do ; then the deceitfulness of many false inquirers or imperfect 
Christians ; and this discovery of widespread depravity makes him 
ready to suspect everybody, even the best of his native brethren, even 
his European and American associates. In other words a spirit is 
likely to be fostered the farthest remove possible from that charity 
which "hopeth all things" and " thinketh no evil." No wonder a 
Chinese missionary wrote once as follows: "Though physically in 
splendid health, I do need, oh, so much, to go home. I am soaked 
and saturated, not in heathenism, but in the type of character pro- 
duced by centuries of heathenism. I should like to see if I could 
regain, before it is hopelessly too late, a little of my old trust in my 
fellow-man. I should like to see what it would feel like to go a whole 
day without having a thought of suspicion or doubt about any one 
around me ; to take everything I hear said to me in the entire day for 
the face value of it, without discounting a fraction of a per cent. ; and 
to have my own word taken in the same way ; to feel that no one was 
weighing me in the balance, to see whether I was one who wished to 

* " Life of W. C. Burns," pp. 357, 359. f " Life of W. C. Burns," p. 387. 



372 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



overreach, or one who could be very easily overreached. What will 
cure me is nothing else in this world but just home." * 

Another thing which is apt to affect the spirit of a missionary is the 
autocratic power which he wields. He is a sahib, an employer, a 
master. He has servants, coolies, artisans, Christian workers under 
him. He hires and dismisses at his pleasure. He says to one go and 
he goeth; to another do this and he doeth it. Scores of people await 
the mandate of his will and either bask in his smiles or tremble at his 

frown . There is danger of this 
relation producing its ordinary 
and natural effect, making him 
proud, unsympathetic, domi- 
neering, exacting, impatient, 
severe, unjust, a lover of 
power, and especially so when 
there is with it all the con- 
sciousness of a superiority of 
race, and also blood-relation- 
ship to the rulers of the land. 
Some have likened the effect 
to that which slavery has over 
slaveholders. Great watch- 
fulness and prayer are neces- 
sary if the missionary is to 
continue free from it. A 
proper Christian spirit is 
maintained with much diffi- 
culty under such circum- 
stances; and the provocations received from subordinates only add to 
this difficulty-! 

The secular work which missionaries have to do may also be men- 
tioned, as one of the unfortunate characteristics of their life. Such 
work is not necessarily injurious to religious progress, but it is far from 
being favorable to it. It is hard for the spirit to rise above business 
cares and attach itself warmly to higher things. The world sweeps in 
on the soul and, like an eastern luh, dries up its juices. Yet the mis- 
sionary, as we have already seen, has a great deal of secular work to 
perform, far more than an ordinary minister at home, where there are 
* See pp. 59, 123-128. t See PP- 66 > 6 7> 137-139, 273, 341-344. 




HOMEWARD BOUND. 



DISCOURAGEMENTS AND CONFLICTS 373 

plenty of other people ready and fitted to build churches and "serve 
tables."* 

Add to all this the discouragements of every kind which a mission- 
ary is continually encountering and we discover another jungle of 
difficulties obstructing his progress towards heaven. Kis heart is set 
on the conversion of this or that man, on the establishment of this or 
that congregation, on the adoption or the abolition of this or that 
custom, on the development of the native church in this or that direc- 
tion, on the success of a multitude of plans and purposes, great or 
small, which he feels would help the cause for which he is laboring ; 
but in many cases he meets with failure and disappointment. The 
gospel car moves but slowly, or not at all. He is checked, rebuffed, 
circumvented — whichever way he turns — and there is no help. Under 
such circumstances piety is likely to be dwarfed. It is hard to " walk 
by faith," without any "sight." "Hope deferred maketh the heart 
sick." Only by keeping close to the Saviour can he exclaim with the 
apostle Paul, " We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed ; we 
are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not forsaken ; cast 
down, but not destroyed." 

And then, to crown all, come the debates which he is sometimes 
compelled to carry on with his fellow-laborers. It is rare to find a 
missionary without an opinion of his own and a determined will. 
One could hardly get to the field without these traits of character. 
It requires resolution and strong conviction for a man to leave home 
and friends and civilization to work in a distant land among earth's 
degraded ones. These are the characteristics which more than any- 
thing else, perhaps, differentiate his spirit from that of the average 
minister at home. Independence, and self-reliance, too, are culti- 
vated by the nature of his employment. But these are the very things 
which may bring him into trouble when he gets thoroughly down to 
work. Questions of expediency, policy and principle arise, which are 
felt to be important, and on whose decision the whole future of the 
Lord's cause there seems to depend. As might be expected, there- 
fore, differences of opinion arise in regard to their proper settlement 
and controversies are started. Now it is hard to prevent such controver- 
sies from degenerating into unseemly and personal strife. The gravity 
of the questions themselves, the smallness of the circle in which they 
are discussed, the earnestness of the contestants, and the fact that 
* See Chapter XIV. 



374 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

climate, ill-health or some other cause may have affected their temper 
— all combine to render a calm, dignified and happy solution, in some 
cases, at least, impossible. Once in a while storms are almost sure to 
arise. Yet every one will admit that this state of things, whenever it 
does occur, is unfavorable to the growth of piety and that those who 
experience it must journey heavenward in the face of a heavy gale. 

But there is another side to this subject. Circumstances favorable to 
spiritual progress may also be pointed out in the lot of a missionary. 

At the very outset is that impulse towards high and holy things 
which a call to missionary work implies and gives. In almost every 
instance a struggle takes place in the soul ; there are deep searchings 
of heart ; the foundations of personal piety undergo examination ; 
the needs of a lost and ruined world rise prominently into view; a 
deep yearning for the salvation of men takes possession of the heart ; 
difficulties, dangers and sacrifices only add fuel to the flame ; a new 
baptism is experienced and a new consecration of self to the glory of 
God is made. Under this impetus the missionary cuts the cords 
which bind him to the home land and launches forth bravely in the 
pursuit of his lofty aim. The momentum which he thus receives is 
likely to benefit his whole future character and carry him forward 
many degrees in his religious life. 

Very clearly, too, can he claim the promises of God, going forth as 
he does in obedience to our Lord's great command, " Go ye and make 
disciples of all the nations, baptizing them into the name of the 
Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost : teaching them to 
observe all things whatsoever I commanded you." The words, " Lo, 
I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world," are continually 
ringing in his ears and sustaining his heart. He feels that the One to 
whom "all power has been given in heaven and in earth," is his 
Leader and will ever remain his protecting, enlightening and helping 
Friend. 

A conscious sense of the great work which is given him to do also 
helps to dignify and establish a missionary's soul and make him vigi- 
lant in regard to his own spiritual life. He knows that he is engaged 
in founding a new church, in starting a movement whose influence 
will be felt for generations and that its whole character for centuries 
perhaps will be determined by his teaching, his example and his spirit. 
In short, he is conscious of being an apostle,* a successor (in all but 
* The word apostle means literally a missionary, one sent forth. 



'STIMULANTS TO PIETY 



375 



inspired power) of Peter and Paul, and feels that he is doing apostolic 
work. This knowledge tends to develop his carefulness, his sincerity, 
his prayerful ness and his consistency. 

He is aware, too, that the Christian world, especially his own 
church at home, is watching his course with deep interest and expect- 
ing him to act as their fit representative ; and this fact is apt to pro- 
duce the same effect as that which has just been mentioned. 




KALBADEVI ROAD, BOMBAY. 
(The scene of the riots o/i8g3.) 



He knows also that thousands of God's people are praying for him 
and for the success of his work. This is a great incentive to holiness 
and a great help in the prosecution of his labors. Perhaps no other 
single thing is more thought of, or more prized, by those who have 
gone far hence to bear the gospel to the heathen. If persons at home 
only realized this fact they would certainly pray for missionaries more 
than they do. 



376 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

Again, the rapidity with which converts are made helps to 
strengthen the faith of those who are engaged in missionary work and 
fill them with ho)y enthusiasm for the cause of Christ. Every one 
knows how a time of ingathering, when sinners are flocking to the 
Saviour by scores and hundreds, stirs the hearts of God's people, 
increases their attachment to the Christian religion and brings them 
nearer the Master. Just such a thing is likely to be the result in a 
heathen land under similar conditions. 

Compassion for souls, converted and unconverted, has also a chas- 
tening, sweetening effect upon the human heart. And how much call 
for this is there among the multitudes of India ! How many are scat- 
tered abroad as sheep having no shepherd ! How many are dying 
daily without a knowledge of Jesus ! How many Christians are weak 
and ignorant, mere babes in Christ ! How many are destitute even 
of the temporal necessaries of life ! What an appeal is made to the 
tender, sympathetic feelings of a genuine missionary ! 

Fraternal intercourse with Christian fellow-laborers, too, is a means 
which God uses to keep the sacred flame of piety up to a glowing 
point. And when they meet there is much of this among mission- 
aries. They seem like members of one family. They are every one 
exiles on a foreign shore. Their tastes, sympathies, antipathies and 
aims are all very similar. They pray for each other, and extend to 
one another a helping hand, as readily and as feelingly as though they 
were brothers and sisters of the same household. Sometimes this 
close relationship embitters and deepens strife and makes individuals too 
free in speaking of the faults of their fellows, but its influence on the 
whole is beneficial. The collected coals warm more than they burn.* 

The deadening effect of heathenism upon the piety of those who are 
brought under its influence has already been referred to. But there is 
another point of view which may be taken of this system. Heathen- 
ism, through its evils, is also apt to disgust and repel a healthy mind. 
And this is the effect which is more generally felt by a missionary. 
He sees the follies, the absurdities, the falsehoods and the degrading 
morals of false religions and their adherents, and recoils from them with 
decided aversion. Christianity, through mere contrast, only stands 
out all the more clearly as of divine origin. Calmly and without ef- 
fort he clings to it as the sole remedy for our race. His faith is 
strengthened rather than weakened. He becomes firm as a rock. 
* See pp. 63, 99 and 100. 



ADVANTAGES IN FAVOR OF PIETY 377 

That very freedom also, with which a Hindu, or a Muhammadan, 
confesses and upholds his faith induces similar freedom on the part of 
a Christian in maintaining his own religion. It is easy for him to 
preach " Christ and Him crucified." Instead of hiding Jesus, or being 
ashamed of His work, he delights in praising an incomparable Master 
and glories in the privilege of extending His cause. And this, of 
course, has naturally a beneficial effect upon his piety. The more he 
commits himself to the truth and stands up for Jesus the better Chris- 
tian soldier he becomes.* 

Perhaps, too, there is no class of persons engaged in Christian work 
who are less concerned about their own worldly prosperity than mis- 
sionaries. Of private secular business they have little to trouble them. 
Nor does concern about fashion, dress or social standing have any 
material effect upon their mind. Thus, being as far as possible free 
from the vexations and the cares of this world, they can devote their 
time and thoughts to better things. This is one of their great spiritual 
advantages, f 

And they can claim the blessing also, which is attached to great lib- 
erality ; for scarcely a foreign worker can be found who does not give 
at least one-tenth of his income to religious and charitable objects. 
Nor is this done ostentatiously, but as occasion arises in the course of 
his work. If then it is true that "the liberal soul shall be made fat 
and he that watereth shall be watered also himself," a missionary 
ought to expect a large and perpetual increase of grace. And this 
blessing ought to be heightened also by the fact that his gifts are ac- 
companied in their distribution by personal effort for the good of 
others. " If thou draw out thy soul to the hungry," says Isaiah, " and 
satisfy the afflicted soul ; then shall thy light rise in obscurity, and thy 
darkness be as noonday : and the Lord shall guide thee continually, 
and satisfy thy soul in drought, and make fat thy bones ; and thou 
shalt be like a watered garden, and like a spring of water, whose wa- 
ters fail not." 

The missionary, again, is as likely as any to be cheered and stimu- 
lated in his Christian course by the prospect of a glorious reward. 
Feeling that his work is an important one and that many souls now 
and hereafter will be saved through his instrumentality, he seeks more 
and more the great privilege of saying at last, " Behold, I and the chil- 
dren which God hath given me." He feels confident that, though at 

* See pp. 151 and 152. f See pp. 56, 57, 61-63. 



378 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

present he " goes forth weeping, bearing precious seed," he will event- 
ually return to the Lord in joy, "bringing his sheaves with him." 
The anticipation of this happy hour is apt to deepen his earnestness 
and stimulate his efforts as he presses forward towards a heavenly goal. 

Whether missionaries are more affected by the favorable than the 
unfavorable circumstances in which they are placed, whether as pil- 
grims they travel more rapidly or more tardily towards the celestial 
city than their brethren do at home, is a question which it would be 
hard to answer. No doubt there is a great diversity of experience 
among them. Some ripen fast for heaven and acquire much loveliness 
of character. Others show frequently the depressing and embarrassing 
effects of their unsanctified natures and evil surroundings. The chariot 
wheels of their piety run heavily. One thing is certain however: 
scarcely a missionary can be found who is not fascinated by the life 
Which he has adopted and does not wish to return to his field of labor, 
who would not rather serve the Master on heathen ground than among 
the churches at home ; and, in analyzing this preference, we often dis- 
cern in it not only an attachment to Oriental ways and a conviction 
that foreign laborers have superior opportunities of doing good, but 
also a consciousness that, in spite of all the hindrances to be found in 
his ministry abroad, a laborer can there live nearer the Saviour and 
have more precious communion with God. And especially may this be 
said of lay workers, who, being mostly women, are more seldom called 
upon to bear the secular drudgery of missionary life than ordained 
men, and who, if they remained in the church at home, would, in all 
probability, simply tread the path of ordinary Christians. 

From what has been said it is easy to infer the proper qualifications 
of a good India missionary. Evidently he should have a sound body, 
especially good nerves, a good liver, a good stomach and good eyes. 
Above all he should be proof, if possible, against the insidious attacks 
of malaria. Again, he should be able to read, write and speak his own 
language with accuracy, fluency and force, as a guaranty that he will 
also be able to acquire and use new tongues in a similar way. He 
ought, moreover, to have a good mind in many particulars. All kinds 
of talent can be utilized, and the greater the variety the better. There 
is as much need for intellect and statesmanship on mission ground as 
in a more established condition of the church. Good organizing and 
administrative ability, too, and even mechanical genius, are valuable 
at the present time, in mission fields. If a man is able to change his 



QUALIFICATIONS OF A GOOD INDIA MISSIONARY 379 

employment readily and adapt himself to new circumstances and du- 
ties without much difficulty, he has a nature happily fitted for the work 
of a foreign missionary. And this, implies, of course, a self-sacrificing 
spirit, not merely that heroic kind, which leads one to bear great 
losses and crosses for Christ's sake, and which every missionary is sup- 
posed to have, but that less showy, equally useful and possibly rarer 
kind which enables one to bear little inconveniences and annoyances 
without murmuring. Patience is nearly- allied to this trait and no 
person ought to go to the foreign field without it. There is so much 
there to try this Christian grace that a large stock of it is extremely 
necessary. Unfortunate is he who is sensitive, easily vexed or soon 
made angry. A hopeful, cheerful, charitable disposition, too, is prob- 




THE NEOLA AND HIS VICTIM. 
{From a Punjabi drawing.) 



ably the most needful of all virtues in pioneer Christian work. There 
is enough tendency in the very best foreign laborer to find fault, and 
either grow callous and indifferent, or down-spirited, in the presence 
of acknowledged evils. That is a besetting sin of the missionary. 
What he needs is to guard against it, to look on the bright side of 
things, to see the good qualities of native Christians, to have faith in 
the growing excellence of their rising church, to see clearly its ultimate 
triumph. Happy is he who has much of this insight and can labor 
under its stimulus. The cynic, the sarcastic or sneering critic, the 
croaker and the sad hearted laborer, might better stay at home. A 
loving, humble, condescending spirit may also be mentioned as one 
of the indispensable requisites for successful Christian work in heathen 



380 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 

lands, a spirit which is proof against the pride, the superciliousness, 
the overbearing and dictatorial tone and the love of power which are 
so likely to spring up under missionary conditions. Faith in Christ as 
one's own personal Saviour, in the Bible as a divinely inspired book, 
and in all the doctrines which are termed evangelical, has not been 
mentioned, because it is acknowledged to be a qualification absolutely 
necessary for successful religious work even at home. The uncon- 
verted man, the skeptic, the rationalist and the man of half-way con- 
victions are not wanted anywhere as leaders of the host of God. 

But mission work has a reflex influence also upon the church in 
Christian lands. Missionaries after all are only the agents of the peo- 
ple of God who stay at home ; and, while the rebounding effect of 
what they do is felt first and most powerfully by themselves, it is felt 
also by those whom they represent. Through the arms stretched out 
towards perishing heathen returning blood and a nervous thrill are 
sent back to the great body of Christ itself. 

The most significant fact in the history of the Protestant Church of 
the nineteenth century has undoubtedly been her effort to evangelize 
the world. Of conflicts with infidelity, of investigation into the foun- 
dations of faith, of inquiries into the nature of inspiration, of Biblical, 
archaeological, historical, and linguistic researches, of endeavors to 
systematize, recast and illustrate theology, of efforts to reconcile the 
facts of revelation and the facts of science, she has had, indeed, her 
share during the hundred years which are now drawing to a close ; and 
in some of these departments her achievements have surpassed those 
of any^ preceding century. But her most important work and that 
which has distinguished her most from the church of any preceding 
period has undoubtedly been that world-wide movement which she 
has been carrying on for the conversion of lost men. But this move- 
ment has been a growing one. It started with small beginnings and 
advanced step by step until it reached its present proportions. And 
the cause of this gradual growth has been largely the success of the 
work itself. Supposing that a magnet should magnetize a piece of iron 
in its neighborhood and through the magnetism thus induced its own 
power should be strengthened, and that the addition thereby secured 
would produce still greater magnetic activity in the iron near it, which 
again would have a reacting effect upon the original, and that thus the 
induction would go on ad infinitum, we should have a good illustration 
of the manner in which Foreign Missions have affected the home 



EFFECT OF FOREIGN WORK ON HOME WORK 381 

church and vice versa. While the first missionary movement reaching 
out to foreign lands necessarily started in the church itself, or in some 
of her members, a reacting influence from abroad was soon returned 
upon the originators, which again brought out an increase of effort for 
the conversion of the heathen, and thus ever since, through the mutual 
effects of action and reaction, Missions have been advanced and the 
Church herself surcharged with missionary zeal. In other words the 
growing energy of the people of God in carrying on evangelistic work 
in non-Christian lands is largely due to the reflex influence of the work 
itself. The fuel which it created has fed its own flame. 

And, through the spirit thus fostered, Home Missions have also ex- 
perienced a wonderful impulse. Those who yearn for the salvation of 
distant heathen are the most likely to yearn for the salvation of god- 
less neighbors, just as active home workers also are generally the most 
forward to aid evangelism in a foreign field. It is the same sentiment 
which fills the heart of both classes, the only difference being diversity 
in the object upon which it chiefly terminates. And scarcely less re- 
markable than the modern movement to spread Christianity among 
Buddhists, Hindus, and Muhammadans has been the contemporaneous 
struggle made by Protestant churches to win over to Christ every inch 
of the territory, and every individual of the population, of so-called 
Christian lands. The two movements have been acting and reacting 
on each other in a glorious rivalry for the conquest of the world. 

"As the rivers, farthest flowing, 

In the highest hills have birth 
As the banyan, broadest growing, 

Oftenest bows its head to earth, 
So the noblest minds press onward, 

Channels far of good to trace ; 
So the largest hearts bend downward, 

Circling all the human race." 

And powerful, too, has been the combined effect of these evangel- 
istic efforts upon the character of Christianity itself. Believers have 
felt a quickening in every part of their spiritual being. All the graces 
of a God-given life have been developing, blossoming and bringing 
forth fruit. Liberality has been increasing; benevolence has been 
stretching forth her hands ; purity has been cleansing our streets ; self- 
restraint, compassion and holy indignation have been starving or 



382 



LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 



strangling intemperance; gentleness has been mitigating strife ; justice 
has been abolishing slavery; community of work has been uniting 
Christians in holy fellowship; " the marshalled hosts of God's elect," 
though in different corps, have been fighting side by side in the army 
of Prince Immanuel. In fine, faith has been -''working by love;" 
and believers have been adding to their " faith virtue, and to their 
virtue knowledge, and to their knowledge temperance, and to temper- 
ance patience, and to patience godliness, and to godliness brotherly- 
kindness, and to brotherly-kindness charity;" while an immense 
stride has been making towards that consummation of which the apos- 
tle speaks when it is said that all the Lord's people will "come in the 
unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a 
perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ ; " 
when, "speaking the truth in love," they will "grow up into Him in 
all things, which is the head, even Christ, from whom the whole body 
fitly joined together and compacted by that which every joint suppli- 
eth, according to the effectual working in the measure of every part, 
maketh increase of the body unto the edifying of itself in love." 




APPENDIX 



(363) 



384 



APPENDIX 



INDIA. — Summary of Societies and Provinces: — 



I. Societies. 



Foreign Native 

<« £ Ordained Agents. Ordained Agts 

O 4> 



as 



Baptist 1793 49 58 49; 80129' 

Congregational. 1805J 71! 68] 631 70 76 2 

Episcopal 11706 100 146 147 144 203 13 

Presbyterian ... 1828' 53! 73! 88105149 5 

Lutheran 1834 42 74 87107I125J 

Methodist 1817I 13! 48 43I 71 no 

Various Miss.... 1856, 11 it 11 9 65 1 



Totals I339 478,488,586 857 2: 



5c a* 

OC GO 



s - 

O 3 

H 
fa<3 

^ fa 



61 19:135215: 7 

:8 46 67! 84 5 

44|i°5ji7 02 49 : ' 
39 1 6417 

23 : 48! 
26116 19 
xl 21I 6 

461 7977 2 



Native 
Lay Preachers. 



20 26 

4 11 

4 12 

1 6 



97223 



23 91 132 

8158 398 

26163 504 

17 38 93 

10 36 112 

30 6 24 

4 ' 

118493 1266 



190' 461 

447| 473 

773 767 

217 260 



19S4 



328 

180 

x 9 

2488 



Churches 
or Congregations. 



349^267 



rH 




3? 


So 






72 


139 


134 


5" 


bl 7 


1 149 


48 


112 


68 


278 


27 


63 


5 


26 


071 


2278 



s is 



218 449 1 

690 625 2 
9742274 3 

252 287 4 

343 206 5 

147 613 6 

26 409^7 

3650J4863' 



II. Provinces. 



■« a 



s - 

3 a 



Foreign 
Ordained Agents. 



Native 
Ordained Agts 






H-l fa 



Native 
Lay Preachers. 



I'„'C 



1 45 



Bengal ,1799 95 

N.W. Provi's ) I1813 
andOudh..../ 1858; 

Punjab i8i8| 10 

Central India..., 1842' 4 

Bombay 1813! 38, 48 

Madras i7o6i47'2oi 



1 36 125 



77 



8& 



9 
4i| 92] i| 3 
57! 74150! 4;i2 
196217262 12 57 



35124 
19 35 



14 27 

6 9 



21922 

9yi 
son 

231 7 
48! 2 
36319 



23 306 



IBS 

77 

1 



Churches 
or Congregations. 



383] 490 854 1 

96 i32 ( 506 2 

90 293 4 22 47 65! 104I3 

83 182, 2 7 37 70 1344 

124 278 13 44 64 135, 165 5 

[444 1462 161 712x651 27583100 6 



Total in India...' 1 1339479488^86 8572i ! 97 325461,797 72'ti8.493 ! i266 1985 2488 3491 267971,2278 36504863! 



University Examinations in Mission Schools, 1872 to 1890. 



Provinces. 



Church 
Families. 


1872 to 1881. 


I 
1882 to 1890. ; Totals 1872 to 1890. 

II 


Mat. F. A. 


B.A. 


M. A. 


Mat. 


F. A. 


B.A. 


M. A. 


Mat. 


F.A. 


B.A. 


M. A. 




14 
456! 92 
426; 34 
1328! 602 
23 
176 


2 

7 

332 


41 


13 

777 
914 

1417 
206 


122 


26 
114 


33 


27 
1233 
1340 
2745 

45 


1 
214 
348 
1986 

21 


28 
121 
1574 










1 


Presbyterian 


1384 1242 
211 


74 


















Total 


2468! 728I 341! 42!! 3327 


1842I 1382I 33' 


579 ; 


257° 


1723 


75 



1872 to 1881. 



Mat. F. A. B.A. M. A. 



1882 to 1890. 



Mat. I F. A. B. A. M. A. 



Bengal 

Northwest Provinces., 

Punjab 

Central India 

Bombay. 

Madras 



Totals 



70S 
214 
70 
126 
105 
"85| 



379 
45 1 



54 
250, 



166 



37 



638 


840 


626 


224 


12 




190 


103 


34 


i<tf 


5 X I 


27 


44 


9 1 


? ! 


077 


836 


695, 



728 3411 42] 3327, 1842, I382I 



Totals 1872 to 1890. 



Mat. 



1406 
438 
260 
280 
149 

3262 



33 



5795 



F.A. 



1219 

57 

103 

5i 
54 

1086; 



B.A. 



2570I 1723 



M. A. 



70 



APPENDIX 385 

Missionaries, Lay Preachers, Christian Communities and Pupils in Day Schools.* 



u 

V 

s 




Native Christians 






Communicants. 




Total Pupils in Schools, 
Males and Females. 


fe 




1 






00 


1 




^ 




1 


H 1 




<H 


, 






4544 


1 1 
773& 


GO 


3j 


& 1 

^ ! 


00 


GO 


00 


00 J 


s 


s ' 


s 


s 


1 


16496 


75747.133122: 1367, 


2081 


5387 


3° 2 45 


538oi 


4016 


2704, 8253; 


12303 


20488 


2 


22929 


347": 


4804O 68954' 77466 I72O 


3845 


6012 


9689 


J 3775 


18166 


I5844 1 16457 


28147 


42042 


•6 


57952 


805731 


15483,180681,193363] 9232 


13544 


23976 


40990 


52377 


23636 


31429! 51239: 


68198 


79983 


4 


821 


3259; 


7474! J 7 2 74' 34395 272 


1243 


2647 


5714 


11128 


12458 


16956 27235 ( 


40729 


50523 


5 


4W 


11187 
836 


31596 62536 62838 1652; 


3792 


I2576 


21924 


24207 


3787 


47 8 4i 5939: 


10969 


12713 


6 


440 


2846, 10646 32381] 367, 


394 


1568 


4295 


15782 


*749 


3723! 10007 


21790 


56492 


V| 


102 


427! 


2323! 1534 26096; 11 


80 


65O 


468 


11052 


231 


555| 3°°2 : 


5510 


17475 


1 


91092 


i3873 I ;224258!4i7372 55966i!i466i 


24976 


528l6 


1 13325 


182722 


64043! 


759951122132J 


187652 


279716 



i 

6 


Native Christians. 


Communicants. 


Total Pupils in Schools, 
Males and Females,. 


fe 


1 




00 


1 


1881 
1890 


|| 


00 


00 


I 


8 

00 


I 1 

1-1 1 


1861 

1871 
1881 


8 
00 


1 


14177 


20518 46968 83583 10890 1 


337*| 


4620 


13502 


28689 37918 


14568 


13655 27950 33450 1 50417 


2 


1732 


3942 


7779 12709 30321 


573 


1030 


3031 


5021 14722 


4264 


8370 17265 25250 47311 


3 


98 


1136 


1870 4762 20729 


25 


358 


707 


1948 6034 


701 


3608 10547 16567 22523 


4 


271 


526 


2509 4885 1 1343 


68 


138 


665 


2173 458o 


59 6 


1146 6130 8168 15037 


b 


6^8 


2531 


4177, 116911 22455 


290 


1 100 


1591 


4887 9192 


6975 


6-,i4 7184 11562 28120 


6 


74176 


1 10078 1609552997421365912 10334 


17730 


33320! 70607 1 10276 


36 939 


42702 53056 92655 1 16308 




91092 


i 3 873i|22 4 258 l 4i 7372559661 14661 1 


24976 


52816 113325 182722 


64043 


75995 T22132 187652 279716 



*This Table does not include Statistics for Ceylon or Burma. 



Summary of Sabbath Schools in India, excluding Ceylon and Burma. 





1881 1890 


Totals of 


Provinces. 


1881 


1890 


Totals of Societies. 


XI 


CO 


'3. 

3 
an 


1 — 

CO 


3 i 

Si 

138821 
27934' 
240681 
20867 

535 
46351 

750; 
1 1 78 


183 
350 
27 

74 
131 

1 102 


'S. 

3 

Ph 
"6938 
16671 
3007 
2642 

37" 
28719 


x: 


C/2 
613 


3 

Ph 


Baptist 


144 

277 

770 

36 

274 

335 

7 

24 


3708 


*t6 




19669 




10669 55 2 
13792 850 
133731 461 
3564 18 


N W. Prov 


nces & Oudh 


Episcopalian 


123] 449 1 


Central Indi 









257 
1401 


11613 
55423 








500 
509 


i I8 

i 1Q 












Total 


1867 


61688 


3503 


135565 


Total - 


1867 6t6RR 





















Years of Service of the Foreign Ordained 
Missionaries who were in India in 1886. f 



Nationality of India Missionaries.^ 



Over 50 years 2 

From 45 to 50 years 4 

From 40 to 45 years 5 

From 30 to 40 years 42 

From 20 to 30 years 1 

From 10 to 20 years 231 

Under 10 years 393 

Total number of Missionaries 791 

Average years of labor, about 13 



4 



38i 
173 
139 
23 



From Great Britain and Ireland 

From the Continent of Europe 

From the United States 

From Canada 

From West Indies 

From other countries 32 

Sons and Grandsons, born in India 42 

Total 791 



f From Badley's Directory. 

25 



X From Badley's Directory. 



386 



APPENDIX 



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TOPICAL INDEX 



Abbotabad, a hill station, 50. 

Abdulla Athim, Judge : in a debate. 201. 

Abdurrahman, the Amir of Afghanistan ; an ally 

of the English, 25 ; a despot, 27. 
Ablutions of Hindus and Moslems, 122. 
Abolition of High Schools suggested, 170; of 

slavery by the Russians, 24. 
Aborigines of India and low castes, 117, 118 ; 

work among, encouraging and obligatory, 

355-357- 

Abyssinians in India, 107. 

Accidents of travel, 186, 187. 

Acesines, the Chenab river, 103. 

Adamson, Dr , visits ihe U. P. Mission, 64. 

Aden described, 14, 15. 

Aerie, a house on Dharmkot, 50. 

Afghanistan : railway through it, 19. 20 ; its 
alliance with India, 25 ; a buffer against Rus- 
sia, 25 ; should be under better rule, 27; allu- 
sion, 86. 

Afghans: fanatical, 27; speak Pashtu, 86. 

Africa : seen, 13 ; the Mahdi in, 22 ; medical 
workers there, 179. 

Agnosticism, rare in India, no, 117, 151. See 
Infidelity. 

Agra : on the road to the Punjab. 16 : meeting 
of Presbyterians there, 91 ; its medical mis- 
sion, 97; allusion, 324. 

Ahmedabad, on road to the Punjab, 16. 

Ahmed Shah, the emperor, at Bhera, 104. 

Aitchison, Sir Charles : his administration as 
Lieut. -Governor, 34 ; his view of missions, 238. 

Ajmere: on road to Punjab, 16; place of Daya- 
nanda's death, 114. 

Akalgi'rh, under the Sikhs, 104. 

Akbar : crowned at Kalanaur, 104 ; erected At- 
tock fort, 104. 

Ala-lambardar of Saddowal, 232. 

Alden's "Evidences of Christianity" translated 
185. 

Aleppo, on one road to India, 17. 

Alexander : his invasion of the Punjab, 103. 

Alexandretta, as a railway terminus, 17. 

Allahabad : judge's decision there, 231 ; Presby- 
terian Alliance meetings there, 91; its 5. S. 
Lessons, 92; its Tract Society publications 
308. 

Alliance. General, of Reformed Churches, 91. 

Alliance, Presbyterian, of India ; its history and 
aims, 91 ; its organ, 92. 

Amballa, occupied by Am. Pres. Mission, 98. 

Ameera, of Gujranwala ; sketch of, 257, 258. 

Amen, said in worship, 265. 

America to India: ordinary journey described, 
12-16, and the cost. 12 ; via China and Japan^ 
17; allusions, 84, 144, 181, 289, 364. 367. 

American Bible Society: its principles of work 
and fields, 301. 

American Board: when organized, 94: when 
entered India, and where working, 97; in Cey- 
lon, 311 ; in Sandwich Islands, 313 ; her medi- 
cal missionaries, 179 ; her educational mission- 
ary work, 165. 



American Line of Steamers, 9, 10. 

American Presbyterian Mission : when entered 
India, and her fields, 97 ; her Punjab field de- 
scribed, 98 ; occupation of Rawal Pindi, 102; 
transfer ot this field to us, 102 ; her High 
School at Rawal Pindi, 172 ; college in Lahore, 
169, 173 ; her Punjab field compared with 
others, 103 ; vernacular paper, the Nur Af- 
s/ian, 92; Synod, 308; publications, 308'; 
school at Woodstock, 53 ; industrial work, 
324 ; liberality, 331 ; policy regarding natives, 
346 ; press, 306 ; semi-centennial, 90 ; moves 
for Presbyterian Union, 91 ; salary of mission- 
aries, 62. See also Ludhiana Mission. 

American Reformed (or Dutch Reformed) Mis- 
sion, 97. 

Amir Bibi's baptism : its effects, 229. 

Amoor river : left bank ceded to Russia, 23. 

Amos, teacher in C. T. Institute, 2S2. 

Amritsar : founded by Ram Das, 112 ; roads at, 
75, 76; chief'center of C. M. S., 98; public 
debate there, 199, 201 ; its Golden Temple, 
112 ; allusions, 196, 355. 

Amu, or Oxus, river ; reached by Russia, 23, 
and by railway, 19 ; bridge across, 19. 

Anam, peaceful, 21. 

Anchor Line of Steamers, n. 

Anderson, Miss E. D. : her Girls' Schools in 
Jhelum, 172. 

Anderson, T. D., of Baltimore : his help, 70. 

Andhi, described, 43. 

Andrar, a peak at Dharmsala, 51. 

Andrew-like workers, 196. 

Anglo-Indians— that is, British people or their 
white descendants, resident in India, especially 
officials : comparatively few in India. 107 : 
number in the Punjab, 119, 120; in civil and 
military service, 29, 30; some colonists, 119: 
their mode of living, 204, 206 ; houses, 55, 56, 
ills., 144. 368; house furniture, 56; table, 57, 
58 ; their hard work, 67 : how affected by the 
climate, 362, 363, 368, 369; characteristic 
traits. 67. 68 ; compared with natives. 123-125; 
their faults, 124, 125. 218. 2T9 ; social rules, 64, 
367: intercourse with missionaries, 63, 64; 
some Ritualists or Plymouth Brethren, 64 ; 
attitude towards natives, 343, 344 ; intercourse 
with natives, 66-68: their opinion of native 
Christians, 249 ; especially, of servants, 252 ; 
why they dislike Christian servants, 253 ; their 
fear of Russia, 25 ; low condition of the poor 
# class, 86, 119; their dumb friend. 68; retired 
from service, 28 ; illustrations of. 33, 74, 141, 
155. 161, 204. See also under English, English- 
men and Europeans. 

Anglo-Tndian's friend, ills.. 68. 

Anglo-Vedic College in Lahore, 114, 115. 

Animals: aversion of Jains to killing, 113 ; wor- 
shiped by Hindus, 112; deaths from, 44,45; 
illustrations, passim. 

Anklet, ills., 124, 174. 

Anna, one-sixteenth of a rupee, defined, 77 ; allu- 
sion, 125. 

(387) 



388 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Annoyances: of housekeeping, 58-60; of travel, 

81, 82; of itinerating work, 191, 192. 
Annual Meeting of the Mission: when and where 

held, 136, 137; described, 133, 134. 
Anvil: ills., 325. 
Apologetics: taught in theological seminaries, 

290. 
Apologies: their use in missionary work, 198-201; 

must not compromise, 356, 357; published in 

Indian vernaculars, 308. 
Apoplexy, heat: in the Punjab, 46. 
Apostasy : of native Christians, rare, 252, but 

sometimes occurs, 251, 255; to and from Islam, 

352, 353- 

Apostles of India: to be natives, 87, 358. 

Apostles' Creed, referred to, 220. 

Approaches to India, Chapter I. 

Arabia: seen, 15; railway across, 17; allusion, 22. 

Arabian Sea, described, 15. 

Arabic character, in India, 268, 270. 

Arabic tongue: spoken in Egypt, 87; studied by 
India missionaries, 86; difficult, 88. 

Architecture: of Moslems in India, 116; ills. ,329; 
of Hindus, ills., 111, 159; of Kashmir, ills., 36; 
of nice native houses, 176, 177. 

Arjan, a SWh guru, 112. 

Arms. See under Fire Arms. 

Army of India: its officers, constitution and size, 
29-51; its Gurkhas, 50, 107; Sikhs, good sol- 
diers, 113; its drills and sham battles, 25; char- 
acter of British soldiers, 124; native Christian 
regiments, 325-327; armies of native princes, 
30, 31; volunteers, 30; its cantonments, 31; 
commanders-in-chief, 30; pictures of soldiers 
and officers, 141, 155, 161. 

Arq defined, 122. 

Arrian mentions the Jhelum, 103. 

Art in India, 108, 176. See also Architecture 
and illustrations generally. 

Arya Patrika, a Lahore paper, 115. 

Arya Samaj: described, 114, 115; a half-way sta- 
tion, 167; trickery of its adherents, 226, 227; 
their annoyance in bazir preaching, 157, 158; 
one (a lawyer) converted, 196, 197. 

Aryan race in India, 107; their tongues and 
other tongues, 85, 86; their pantheon, 43: then- 
invasion of the country. 27. See also Hindu, 
Hinduism, and Hindus. 

Aryans. See Arya Samaj and Aryan Race. 

Asarur: once a capital, 103, 104; ruins there, 104. 

Asceticism: of heathen origin, 210; opposed by 
Aryans, 114; of no advantage in missionary 
work. 203-217. See under Fakirism. 

Ashe, Rev. R. P., quoted on Church Missions, 
312. 

Ashurada, seized, 23. 

Asia Minor : route through, to India, 18. 

Askabad, on Transcaspian Railway, 19. 

Asoka's reign, 104. 

Asral, a peak near Dharmsala, 57. 

Assam and Manipur, 22. 

Assistant Commissioner, referred to, 30, 204. 

Associate Presbyterian Mission, its origin, 99. 

Asuri river, a boundary, 23? 

Atlantic Ocean: journey across, 12. 

Attitudes: of Moslems in prayer, ills., 117; of 
Christians in prayer and praise, 265. 

Attock: mad to, 75; fort erected, 104; ruins at, 
10s; Indus at. 105. 

Audiences: how to secure them. 149, 150. 

Augustine's lamentation regarding the church of 
his own time, 203. 

Austerity. See Asceticism and Fakirism. 

Authority of foreigners and natives in mission 
work discussed. 342-349. 

Autocracy of mission superintendents: a hin- 



Autocracy — Continued. 

drance to good spiritual work in employees, 
341; tends to keep up division, 66, 67, 344; its 
modification, 347; its reflex influence on the 
superintendents themselves, 372, 373; its pro- 
priety, 272, 273. 

Autonomy of native church. See Church in 
India. 

Ayah, a native nurse, 150; a subject of instruc- 
tion, 150. 

Baba Nanak : what he taught, 112 ; his shrine 
at Sialkot and the mela there, 104, 160. 

Bab-el-Mandeb, passed, 15. 

Baber fined Bhera, 104. 

Babies, how carried, 187; ills., 124. 

Babu : a title, like Mr. or gentleman, 152. 

B. A. : number who passed this standard, 294,384. 

Backsliders reclaimed, 254. 255. 

Back-street preaching. See Mahalla Preach- 
ing. 

Badley's " Indian Missionary Directory : " quot- 
ed, 364, 385. 

Badoki congregation : its contributions of prod- 
uce, 253 ; its recovery from backsliding, 254. 

Badomalli school, 251. 

Bag, a peak near Dharmsala, 51. 

Baghdad, on Euphrates route, 17, 18. 

Bahawalpur, a Muhammadan state, 98. 

Baisakhi festival, 160. 

Baku, railway terminus on Caspian Sea, 18, 19, 20. 

Bala Shah, or Balisha, or Lai Beg, or Balmik, 
the high priest of the Chuhras, 118; tradition 
about him, 246, 247. 

Balain, a peak near Dharmsala, 51. 

Balmik. See Bala Shah. 

Baltimore, alluded to, 9. 

Baluchistan, brought under British influence, 21. 

Banda, a Sikh rebel, 104. 

Banks of India, 84 ; post-office banks, 84. 

Banya: avaricious, 37, 38, 84, 127; his shop de- 
scribed, 152, 157; many Jains of Banya caste. 

Banyan Tree : its shade, 152 ; ills. , 153, 362 ; a 
symbol of the church's expansion, 361, 381. 

Baptism : its relation to mission work, 230 ; prep- 
aration for, 262 : qualifications for, 219-223, 
762 ; examination for, 272 ; relation to the 
Lord's Supper, 333, 334 : singular motives for 
wanting it, 202, 203; obstructions to, 230-234; 
baptism at melas, 161; baptism in schools 
and the effect, 166 ; baptism of minors and the 
law regarding it, 230. 231 : baptism of polyg- 
amists, 222, 223 ; baptism of families, 225, 
328, 331 ; limitation of the number of baptisms, 
221. 

Baptist missions in India : general statistics, 
384, 385. 

Baptist ("American) mission, 97; Baptist (Cana- 
dian) mission, 97. 

Baptist (English) missions in India, 94. 97. 

Baptist (General) missionary society, 95, 97. 

Baptist (Strict) mission, 97. 

" Baptized Adults ; " number and meaning of the 
term, 333. 3^4. 

Barnabas cited as an example of fakirism, 206. 

Baroda, alluded to. 16. 

Barber, Hindu : ills., 209. 

Barr, J. S., D.D. : superintendent C. T. Insti- 
tute, 282 ; theological professor, 288, 289 ; 
translator of " Hodge's Theology," 307. 

Barr. W. W., D.D. : visits the mission, 64, 237. 

Barsat. or rainy season, 40,41. 

Barth's " Scripture History" taught, 306. 

Bisel Missionary Society. 97. 

Bassorah, on Euphrates route, 17, 18. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



389 



Bathing, common in India, 58, 122. 

Bathing tank : ills., 159. 

Batoum, R. R. terminus on Black Sea, 18. 

Bazar: defined, 154,157; ills., 155, 375; allu- 
sion, 174. See Sadr Bazar. 

Bazar Chapels, or reading rooms, 151, 158,184,185. 

Bazar preaching : described, 154-158 ; like pub- 
lic debate, 199, 201 ; like work at melas, 159, 
160 ; in evangelistic tours, 191, 225 ; opposition 
at and obstructions to, 157, 158, 227, 228 ; co- 
operation in, 89, 90 ; its value in evangelism, 
158 ; qualifications for, 158. 

Beas : one of the " five rivers," 98 ; the Hypha- 
sis, 103 ; seen from Dharmsala, 51. 

Bed-clothing on journeys, 81, 82. 

Be-din, explained and illustrated, 151. 

Beggars in India, 123. 

Begums: defined, 177; alluded to, 179. See 
Fardah or Pardah-nisliin. 

Belgium, compared with the U. P. field, 103. 

Belgrade, on Constantinople route, 18. 

Benares, home of Jadjodh Singh, 226. 

Beneficence Committee of Sialkot Presbytery, 

Bengal : increase of Christians there, 351 ; Sun- 
day Schools, 385 ; general statistics, 384, 385 ; 
allusions, 300, 301. 

Bengal, Bay of, 23. 

Bengal civil service, 29. 

Bengali tongue, 85. 

Bentinck, Lord : his opinion of Dr. Duffs college, 
162, 163. 

Berlin, on one route to Asia, 20. 

Bernard, an example of fakirism, 206. 

Bhabra caste and the Jains, 113. 

Bhagsu, a sacred fountain at Dharmsala, 52. 

B/iajans. described. 304; used in ordinary wor- 
ship, 265; at bazar preaching, 156 ; in zenanas, 
177, 178 ; in evangelistic work generally, 198; 
specimens in Roman Punjabi, with music, 200, 

Bhans:, an intoxicating liquor, 122. 

Bhangiand Bhanghvala, ills., 155, 187 ; allusion, 
187. 

Bhatties, their capital, 103. 

Rhedo-Chida : a baptism there, 235. 

Bhera: on Sind Sagar R. R., 76; described, 
100; fined and sacked, 104: its manufactures, 
106; now occupied by U. P. Mission, 100 ; 
persecution there, 227, 228 ; its medical work, 
182; its school, 297; journey to, 152; dis- 
pensary washed away by floods, 42. 

Bhola, assistant mistri, C. T. I.. 280. 

Bhusa, finely broken straw, 187. 

Bible : taught in mission schools 172, 184 ; in 
the theological seminary, 290: read through in 
the originals. 292 ; an attraction in bazar work. 
156, 157 ; rejected by Aryans, 114 ; its plan of 
salvation, 209 ; how much studied by mission- 
aries, 370 ; vernacular commentaries few, 306 ; 
translations, 92, 93, 291, 300-^03. See also 
under Bible Translation and Bible Societies. 

Bible Societies : their work of translating and 
distributing the Bible. 300, 301. See under 
Bible Translation, British and Foreign B. 
S., American B. S., and Punjab B. S. 

Bible Translation : work in India, 291, 300- =03 ; 
into Urdu, 300-302 ; into Gurmukhi, 302 ; into 
Persian Punjabi, 302, 303 ; Serimpur transla- 
tion, 300 ; MartyrTs, 300; Shurman and Haw- 
kins', 300; Mir2apur, 300; defects of present 
Urdu version, 301, 302; new version needed, 
but by a native, 291, 302 ; the present move- 
ment, 291 ; translation work of the U. P. Mis- 
sion, 302, 303 ; mostly done by others, 92, 93. 
See Bible Societies. 



Bicycle draws a crowd, 156. 

Bihishti, or water-carrier : serves missionaries, 
190; at railway stations, 78 ; ills., 124; on 
hills, tils., 277. 

Bindi, or Bhindi : that is, okra, 57. 

Biographical sketches of some native Christians, 
257-260. 

Birds: indwellings, 58 ; ills., 93, 100, 173, 178, etc. 

Bir Singh's beating, 235. 

Biscay, Bay of: its roughness, 10; allusion, 13. 

] jitter Lakes referred to, 14. 

Black Mountain wars, 22 . 

Black Sea : on one road to the East, 18, 20; rail- 
ways beyond, 24 ; outlet of, 24. 

Blue Herons, ills., 189. 

Board of Foreign Missions of the United Pres- 
byterian Church of North America : its loca- 
tion, 9, 10 ; its Cor. Secretary, 132 ; its Treas- 
urer, 143 ; how it sends out missionaries, 9, 10; 
its powers and policy, 131-133 ; its relation to 
ecclesiastical courts in the field, 131, and 
to " The Mission," 131, 132 ; receives contri- 
butions from India, 315; suggests a plan of 
settling difficulties, 347. 

Boards of Directors for institutions and work, 
278, 286, 288. 

Boards of Foreign M issions : their business agents 
abroad, 12. 

Boards, or Committees, of Scotch and British 
churches : their policy, 132. 

Boats : as a means of itineration, 193 ; ills., 36, 
55. 357- 

Bokhara : railway to, 10 ; annexed, 23. 

Bolan Pass, a railway route, 19. 

Bombay City : distance from London, 9 ; pass- 
age to 10 ; port for missionaries, 1 1 ; described, 
15, 16; from Persian Gulf to, 17; University 
there, 163, 164; a Parsee center, 115; first 
railway at, 76 ; Hindu devotion at, 353 ; Bow- 
en's residence there, 215 ; Alliance meeting at, 
91 ; Decennial Missionary Conference there, 
169; Kalbadevi Road, ills., 375; Bombay to 
Sialkot by rail, 15, 16. 

Bombay, Baroda & Central Railroad, 15, 16. 

Bombay Guardian, a help to missions, 92. 

Bombay Presidency : powers of its governor, 28 ; 
his salary, 30; its civil service, 30; increase 
of Christians there, 351 ; statistics of its mis- 
sions, 384, 385. 

Bombay University, 163, 164. 

Boniface, cited as a fakir, 206. 

Book shops : described, 157. 184 ; used as bazar 
chapels and meeting houses, 157, T58, 184. 

Book Societies. See Religious Book Societies 
and Bible Societies. 

Boston, a point of departure, 9. 

Boundaries for missions : policy of establishing, 
95, 96, 101 ; how regulated, 133, 137. 

Boundary between Afghanistan and Russian ter- 
ritory, 25. 

Bowel complaints in the Punjab, 46. 

Bowen, of Bombay : an example of fakirism, 
206 ; his methods and success, 215. 

Bracelet, ills., 124, 174. 

Brahm, the Supreme, 111. 

Brahma : one of the Tri-murti, in ; worship of, 
in . 

Brahma Samaj : compared with the Arya Sa- 
maj, 114; a half-way station, 167. 

Brahmans : described, in; reverenced, 113; 
fed, 116; loaded with gifts, 321, 353; favored 
by government, 326 ; leaders of Hindu life, 
162 ; getting education, 121, T22 : at hospitals, 
1S1 ; no remarkable Christian work ameng, 
245 ; complaint of one, 355 ; allusion, 246. See 
Castes, High. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Brahminy bulls, described, 211. 

Bribery in India, 127. 

Bridge: over the Amu river, 19; in Kashmir, 
53, and ills., 36, 357 ; over the Chakki, 54. 

" Brief Evidences of Christianity " translated, 
185. 

Brindisi, a celebrated port for steamers, n. 

British and Foreign Bible Society : its field, 301 ; 
assumes the revision of the Urdu Scriptures, 
291, 300, 301. See also Bible Societies and 
Bible Translation. 

British Army in India. See Army of India. 

British Canadian Line of Steamers, 17 

British Colony in India, 119 ; condition of their 
poor, 86, 119 ; how they speak English, 86. 

British India. See India and British Rule. 

British India Line of Steamers n. 

British Rule in India : specially described, Chap. 
Ill — See Contents : its territory, 28, 95 ; its 
native states, 28 ; its complicated system, 28- 
31 ; its departments and divisions, 28 ; connec- 
tion with the Home Government, 28 ; with na- 
tive princes, 28; its rulers, 28-30 ; Viceregal 
Council, 29 ; Staff of Administration, 29 ; Civil 
Service, 29 ; District and Municipal Commit- 
tees, 29; Viceroys, 31-33; Governors, 28; 
Lieut.-Go%'ernors of Punjab, 33, 34 ; its aim, 
34, 35; its material improvements, 19, 35, 36 ; 
maintained by force, 34 ; its powerful protec- 
tion, 35, 127; its stability, 22 ; peaceful, 35 ; 
just, 35 ; its unintentional injustice, 37, 38 ; its 
contests with border tribes, 21, 22 ; its occupa- 
tion of the Punjab, 98 ; guarantees post-of- 
fice bxnking, 84 ; its educational system, 36, 
163-165 : its religious establishment, 36 ; its aid 
to missions, 34-37 ; its grants in aid to schools 
and hospitals, 36, 72. 73, 270 ; employs Chris- 
tians, 324, 325 ; schools utilized to train Chris- 
tians, 294; its testimony about missions, 36, 
37 ; its reforms, 35 ; its hurtfulness to missions, 
37-39, 218, 219 ; its public evils, 33, 38, 39, 218, 
219; schools tend to infidelity, so said, 169; 
its general excellence, 39 ; compared with Rus- 
sian government, 27 ; with American, 367, 368 ; 
how helped by missions, 36, 37, 237, 238, 325. 

British territory in India. See British Rule and 
India. 

Brokers' extortion. See Banya and Money- 
lender. 

Brotherhoods in India. See Protestant Brother- 
hoods. 

Brothers, The, in the Red Sea, 14. 

Brown : his " Short Catechism " translated, 306 ; 
his " Explication" in Urdu, 307. 

Bruce, Robert : his trouble in building, 225, 226. 

Bucephala and Bucephalus, 103. 

Buddha : what he revolted against, 112. 

Buddhism : its founder, 112 ; its failure in India, 
356 ; its influence on Hinduism, 123 : its relation 
to Jainism, 113; modern Indian Buddhism de- 
scribed, 114; its seven precious things, 105; 
its remains in the Punjab, 410. See Buddhists. 

Buddhists: their number in India, no; their 
growth, 352 ; their fakirs, 204 ; their ancient 
medical work, 47; allusion, 381; See Buddhism. 

Buffaloes : bathing, ills., 184; allusion, 263. 

Building: how done in India, 55, 56, 143, 144; 
trouble connected therewith, 143, 144, 225,226. 
See Bungalow. 

Buildings of natives. See Houses. 

Bull : image of, attached to temples, in ; Brahm- 
iny, 112. See Co -w Species. 

Bunder Abbas, on Persian Gulf, 18. 

Bungalow : ills. , 49, 56, 79, 144, 283, 368. See 
also Houses. 

Burglary in India, 127. 



Burial of the dead by Chuhras, 118. 

Burka, or Burqa, defined, 121. 

Burma: Buddhist, 352; its Civil Service, 29 ; an- 
nexation of Upper, 21 ; allusion, 95. 

Burns, Rev. Islay, on the atmosphere of hea- 
thenism, 371 ; on his brother's costume, 214. 

Burns, Rev. W. C, on the same (above) subject, 
37°» 37 1 ; hi s costume, 214; memoir quoted 
from, 214. 

Bushir, on Persian Gulf, 18. 

Caine, Hon. W. S., favors austerity in mission- 
aries, 205. 
Calcutta: route via, 10, 11, 16, 17; riot at, 22 ; 

Alliance meeting at. 91 ; Oxford Brotherhood 

at, 205 ; allusions to, 20, 162, 215. 
Calcutta University : 163, 164. 
Caldwell, Rev. A. B., his experience with snakes, 

45 ; on a Christian mela, 274. 
Caleb, Rev. J. J. : his translation of Hodge's 

" Outlines," 307. 
Calhoun, Miss E. : her schools, 172 ; allusion to, 

258. 
" Call " to a church required for ordination, 33. 
Call to missionary work: its impetus, 374; its 

signs, 378-380. 
"Caller" in Girls' Schools defined, 172. 
Cambridge Mission : at Delhi, 97, 99 ; how its 

missionaries live, 205 ; commended by W. S. 

Caine, 205. 
Camels : their character, 186 ; how hired and 

laden. 186 ; travel with, 186, 187 ; at night, 188, 

189; how fed, 190; not hardy, 191, 192; ills., 

182, 186. 
Campbell, Miss M. J. : her translation of " Ilm- 

i-Ilahi," 306. 
Camping: of missionaries, ills., 186; of Punjab- 

ies, 367; see Itinerating Work. 
Canada : missionaries from, in India, 385. 
Canadian Presbyterian Mission, 97. 
Canals : at Dharmsala. 52 ; Chenab, 325 ; Suez, 

13 ; ills., 14, and map. 
Cantonments of the Punjab, 31 ; in U. P. field, 

102, 105. 
Cape Comorin, 245. 

Carey, entering India, 94 ; his mode of living, 206. 
Caring for her young : ills., 261. 
Carleton, Rev. M. M.. of Kotgarh, 53. 
Carleton Cottage, Dharmsala, 50. 
Carpenter, Hindu : ills., 108. 
Cart, ills., 186, 247, 367. 
Carthage, attitude of Romans towards, 356. 
Caspian Sea : on northern route, 18-20 ; allusions, 

23, 24. 
Caste: its nature and spread, 223, 224 ; bears no 

relation to morals, 248 : rigidly enforced by 

Hindus, 112, 126, 127, 224; caste among Sikhs, 

112, 113; among Jains, 113: among Aryans, 

114; among Muhammadans, 116; among Chris- 



tians, 116; among the depressed classes, 117, 
118; fostered by the compound system, 275; 
its evils, 224, 225; its tyranny, 326; its ob- 
struction to faith, 229, 230; its absence favor- 
able to evangelistic success, 224, 225, 246 ; must 
be respected in meeting the people, 150 ; af- 
fected by medical work, 181, 354, by schools, 
267, 354, and other matters, 354 ; giving way, 
236, 354, 360; has slighthold now on some, 114, 
238; how lost caste may be restored, 231. 

Castes : their number in the Sialkot district, 116; 
how they may be formed, 113, 357. 

Castes, high : converts from, few, 243, 244, 245, 
328 : their conversion not hindered by low-caste 
work, 244, 245 ; work among, should be pushed, 

Castes, low — outcastes : described, 117-120; how 



Topical index 



391 



Castes, low — Continued. 

divided as to religion, 117, 118; their number, 
355. 356 ; reached in itinerating, 195 ; open door 
among them, 243-246, 355-357 ; favoring provi- 
dences, 246-248 ; their conversion and baptism 
objected to, 219, but important, 357; freer from 
superstition and error than others, 246; not 
specially immoral, 248 ; motives leading them to 
embrace Christianity, 201, 202 ; obstructions to 
their baptism, 233, 234 ; not detrimental to 
work among Hindus and Moslems, 244, 245. 
See also Chuhras, Megs, Chamars, etc. 

Catechisms : their preparation and use in the 
vernacular tongues, 306. 

Catechists : their duties, 272. 

Catechumens, examined, 272. See Baptism. 

Caucasian railways, 18, 19. 

Caucasians, or Indo-Europeans, 107. 

Caucasus and Trans-Caucasia, 23, 24. 

Caucasus Mountains, tunnel through, 19. 

Celibacy, obligation of, condemned, 210. 

Cemetery at Dharmsala, 52. 

Census: mode of taking, in India, 116, 117; of 
1891, no. 

Centipede, ills., 61. 

Central Asiatic tribes : their barbarous state, 34. 

Central India: increase of missions there, 351, 
384, 385. 

Central schools: described, 270 ; used in Christian 
training, 278. 

Ceremonies, religious : of little account in evan- 
gelism, 198. 

Ceremony in zenana visitation, 177 : in native 
society, 68 ; among Anglo-Indians, 64, 367. 

Ceylon : its self-supporting churches, 311. 

Chadar : described, 109, no; used for carrying 
grain, 253; ills., 177, 180, 228,252, 288, 298, 
etc. 

Chakki river: when bridged, 54 ; described, 75. 

Ckatnars, a low caste : described, 117, 118; allu- 
sion, 245. 

Chamba : in the Scotch Mission, 99 ; a point for 
excursions, 52. 

Cbandni Chauk, Deltv. tils., 155. 

Chants, in praise, 303. 

Chapati, described. 66 ; ills.. 65, 288. 

Chaplains, in India: their classes and salaries, 
36, 62. 

Character, as a power in evangelism, 196, 197. 

Characters, in printing Urdu, 268, 269. 

Charjui, railway to, and bridge, 19. 

Charles, David, of the Institute, 282. 

Charms, Hindu, in. 

Charpai : a native bedstead, 56: used as a seat, 
159, 227; allusions, 263, 287 : ills., 65, 194, 359. 

Chaukidar : described, 189 ; at an encampment, 
189. 

Cheddu's baptism, 234. 

Chemkend taken. 23. 

Chenab : one of the " five rivers," 98 ; its course, 
99, 193; curious features at Chiniot, 105 ; canal, 
325 ; the Acesines, 103. 

Chess, used for illustration, 140. 

Chhappars, village ponds, described, 263 ; ills., 
184. 

Chhero's conversion and death, 258-260. 

Chicks, described, 192. 

Chief Commissioners, 22, 29. 

Children, native : how carried, ills., 124; of con- 
verts, educated, 202. 

Children of missionaries : must be taken home, 
48, 54. 55, 60, 61, 212; separation from, a great 
trial, 60. 61 ; generally turn out well, 6t ; chil- 
dren's Homes, 61 ; many become missionaries, 
385. 

Chimma, Rura's home, 235, 



China : its heathen character, 571; a victim of the 
opium trade, 39 ; gave no trouble to India, 21 ; 
in the Pamirs, 23 ; opposed by Russia, 24 ; con- 
cessions to Russia, 23, 24; its medical mission- 
aries, 179 ; route via, 17-20; allusions, 23, 84. 

China Inland Mission ; its self-supporting mem- 
bers, 212 ; their mode of living, 206. 

Chinamen, in India, 107. 

Chinar groves, of Kashmir, 53. 

Chiniot : and the Sikhs, 104 ; Chenab at, 105. 

Choga : ills., 341 ; worn by the well-to-do, no. 

Cholera : in the Punjab, 45, 46 ; at Dharmsala, 
Murree and Srinagar, 54 ; why so fearful, 46. 

Christ : a fakir, or not ? 206,210; his presence a 
sustaining power in missions, 374. 

Christian household, ills., 252. 

Christian Instructor, quoted from, 257-260. 
I Christian Settlements. See Settlements. 

Christian Training Institute : its history and 
character, 278-284; ground for it purchased, 
279 ; improvements added, 279, 280 ; built from 
the Stewart Fund, 70, 71 ; architect, 280 ; build- 
ers, 280 ; exterior views, tils., 9 ; interior court, 
ills., 278; under the Mission, 137; Board of 
Directors, 137, 278; Superintendents, 282; Head 
Christian teachers, 282 ; monitor, 284 ; heathen 
teachers, 286,296, 297; terms of admission, 306; 
employment of pupils' parents, 244; course 
of study, 281, 282 ; raised to Entrance standard, 
297 ; Normal class, 282, 284 ; text books, 307 ; 
missionary society, 281,282; Sabbath School, 
282 : women's department, 282, ills., 298 ; its 
internal economy , 280, 28-1; secular work in it, 
142, 144, 145 ; its usefulness, 284 ; a drawback, 
295 ; statistics, 284 ; allusions, 289, 325. 

Christianity : its triumph in the Roman Empire, 
360 ; in India, 360, 361 ; in the wor'd, 361 ; re- 
jected by Aryans, 114. 

Christians: statistics for India and each Province. 
352-355, 384, 385 ; of the Punjab, described and 
enumerated, 119, 120 ; statistics of different ec- 
clesiastical families, 384, 385 ; of U P. Mission, 
340-342, 386; opposed by Aryans, 114. See 
also under Christians Native, Christianity, 
Church, Converts and Missions in India. 

Christians, European, in India. See under An- 
glo-Indians, Englishme7i and Europeans. 

Christians, Native: the number and the rapidity 
of their growth : see under Christians, above; 
their original caste and condition, Chap. XXI ; 
generally poor, 275, 320, 322, 324, 327; not im- 
proving much in wealth, 327 ; dependence upon 
non-Christians for employment, 275 ; in govern- 
ment service, 284, 297, 324, 325, 326; aids to their 
worldly prosperity, 324, 325, 327; obstructions 
to their worldly prosperity, 325, 326 ; their lib- 
erality discussed, 315-317, 319-322; their style 
of living, 65, 66, 205, 263 ; their appearance and 
dress, 278, 288, 298, 342 ; many ignorant, 250; 
their standing as regards education, 121, 122, 
294-297 ; their education important, 267, 297, 
324, 330, 358 ; many weak, 250: their remem- 
brance of their own caste, 116; some hypo- 
critical, 250, 275 ; some, but few, apostatize, 
250, 251, 252, 255; many genuine, 251-260; 
proof of their genuineness, 221, 335 — also Chap. 
XXII ; their social customs, 66 ; their social 
advancement, 277, 278 ; their intercourse with 
missionaries, 66, 67 ; their habits in church, 
264; their aid to evangelism, 195, 196,254; their 
religious and moral traits, 249-260 ; their lower 
and higher training: see Chapters XXIII, 
XXIV and XXV, in Contents ; also under 
Training ; their elevation and primary duty, 
358, 359; to be honored, 358; a group, ills., 
298; in schools, ills., 278, 288, 298. See also 



392 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Christians, Native — Continued. 

under Christians , Workers, Church, Con- 
verts and Ministers. 

Chrysanthemum, quoted on missionary ill health, 
364- 

Chuharkanna, at Eminabad, 104. 

Chuhras : described, 11 7-1 19 ; their quarter of a 
town, 263 ; their employment, 117, 232, His., 
124; some agriculturists and sepies, 232, 235, 
244 ; their mode of life, 263, 264 ; their intel- 
lectual weakness, 270, 275 ; in schools, 267 ; 
their religious beliefs, 118, 246 , their tradition 
about Gugga and Guggagana, 118, 119 ; their 
transition state, 246; movement among, towards 
Christianity, 242 ; seen at hospitals, 181 ; why 
easily converted, 246 ; their tradition about 
Balmik, 246, 247 ; number of converts from, 
244 : instances of conversion, 239, 257-260 ; 
persecution by, 233, 234 ; why kept down by 
Hindus and Moslems, 232. See also under 
Castes, Low. 

Chulha, explained, 188. 

Church buildings : U. P., in Rawal Pindi, ills., 
345 ; English, in Simla, ills., 283. 

Church, Established : in India, or not, 36. 

Church, General : how affected by missions, 380- 
382. 

Church Histories, in Urdu, 307. 

Church in India : comes mostly from the de- 
pressed classes, 245, 246 ; its poverty, 322, 324, 
33 x » 33 2 ; i ts exaltation necessary, 359 ; kept 
pure, or not, by fakirism, 208 ; autonomy hin- 
dered by some mission methods, 273, 217 ; liber- 
ality hindered by the same thing, 319, 320. See 
also Church, U. P., in India.. 

Church in mission lands: its lack of maturity, 
310-313; in leading strings, 311, 312; church 
organization and establishment necessary, 148, 
149; examples of self-supporting organizations, 

3"- 

Church Missionary Society, orC. M. S. : its his- 
tory and statistics, 311 : when organized, 94; 
fields generally, 312; its honorary missionaries, 
212 ; its partial failure, 312, 313 ; in Egypt, 301 ; 
fields and forces in India, 97, 312 ; in the Pun- 
jab, 98 ; work at Clarkabad, 274, 325 ; its Nar- 
owal Mission, 101 ; powers of its Punjab 
Church Council, 346 ; its liberality, 331 ; allu- 
sion, 274. 

Church of England : its two great missionary 
societies, 311, 312 ; extent of its mission failure, 
312-314 ; its chaplains in India, 36; building in 
Simla, ills., 283 ; allusions, 300, 301, 309. 

Church of Scotland — the Established : her mis- 
sions in India. See Scotch Missions. 

Church, U. P., in America: longevity of her 
ministers, 364. See U. P. Church. 

Church, U. P., in India : statistics, 386 ; comes 
mostly from the depressed classes, 245, 246; 
its poverty, 322, 324 ; church service described, 
264-266; building in Rawal Pindi, ills., 345 ; 
its congregational evangelism, 195 ; its organi- 
zation, Chapter XXXVII ; its lack of organ- 
ized congregations, 314, 316; number required, 
316; present number, 333 ; why so few, 334 ; 
how affected by panchayats , 271 ; defects of 
organization discussed, 334-336 ; each congre- 
gation strengthened pecuniarily by its enlarge- 
ment, 327 ; its various ecclesiastical courts, 
33^1 337: the powers, qualifications and de- 
fects of these courts : see under Ecclesiastical 
Courts ; its deficiency in self-governing power, 
Chapter XXVIII — see Contents ; its exalta- 
tion necessary, 359 ; its members : see Con- 
verts and Christians ; its ministers : see Minis- 
ters. 



Circular : business done by, 134. 

Cities and towns : why often elevated, 105 ; how 
built and inhabited, 108, 109. 

City High Schools. See High Schools. 

Civil and Military Gazette : quoted on religions 
establishment, 36 ; quoting the Oudh Akhbar, 
with comments, 123, 124 ; its view of missions 
and missionaries, 237, 238. 

Civil Service of India : how formed, 28, 29 ; for- 
eigners and natives in, 29 ; some, but not many, 
Christian natives in, 319, 324, 325. 

Civilization and savagery : ills., 238. 

Clan Line of Steamers, 11. 

Clarkabad : not a remarkable success, 274 ; allu- 
sion, 325. 

Classes on railways, and fares, 77, 78. 

Climate of the Punjab : Chapter IV — see Con- 
tents ; its distinguishing characteristic, 40 ; ef- 
fect on the natives, 44, 107, 108, 123 ; effect on 
the health and longevity of Europeans and 
missionaries, 48, 50, 54, 216, 362-365, 385 ; ef- 
fect on the temper, 368, 369. 

Clothing. See under Dress. 

Cobra : used in persecution, 201 ; one killed by 
Mr. Caldwell, 45; ills. , 45, 211, 379, 

Cocoanut trees, ills., 247. 

Colaba Station, 15. 

College, preparation for, required, 164. 

Colleges, anti-Christian, 114, 115, 354. 

Colleges, Christian : at Lahore and Madras, 169; 
number of Christian students, 169; U. P., at 
Rawal Pindi, 172, 173, ills., 171 ; Dr. Duff's, 
162, 163 ; Bombay Free Church College, 165 ; 
primarily for the conversion of the heathen, 
162, 165; statistics of degrees, 165, 384. 

Colleges of ali kinds in India : statistics, 163. 

Cologne, route via, 20. 

Colporteur. See Book Shops. 

Comity and courtesy among missions : necessity 
for. 95, 96, 220, 358 ; rules of, 96. 

Commander-in-chief of the Indian army : the po- 
sition, 29, 30 ; who have held it, 30. 

Commentaries on the Bible in vernacular tongues: 
few and much needed, 290, 316 ; number given, 
308 ; one mentioned, 309. 

Commissioners : Chief, 22, 29 ; ordinary, 30, 102, 
196, 226 ; Deputy, 30 ; Assistant, 30. See also 
Deputy Commissioner. 

Committees : Vice-regal, District and Municipal, 
28, 29. See under each. 

Common, of a village or town, 188, 264. 

"Common Prayer," in Urdu, 309. 

Comorin, Cape, 245. 

Comparative religion : good use of the science^ 
199 ; bad use of, 356, 357. See Apologies. 

Compassion for souls : its effect on the nerves, 
363, and on the heart, 376 ; need of it in India, 
128, 363. 

Compound system : its uses and evils, 262, 275. 

Compromise : danger of it, ir missions, 356. See 
Co mpa ra tive Religio n . 

Concordance in Uidu, 309. 

Concubinage : legalized by Islam, 125, 126. 

Conferences: of the mission, 137; of Christians 
and workers, 274, 298 ; devotional for mission- 
aries few, 369 ; of Association of Female 
Workers, 90; of missionaries of different mis- 
sions, 90. See Conventions . 

Conflicts of missionaries : their evils, 95, 96, 101, 
342-344 ; effect on piety, 373, 374. See Comity 
and Missionaries. 

Congregationalists ; their ecclesiastical polity, 
273; educational work, 165; statistics, 384, 
385. See American Board and London Mis- 
sionary Society. 

Congregations. See under Church. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



393 



Conscience and natural affection among Mos- 
lems, 126. 

Conscious Strength : ills., 338. 

Constantinople : route via, 18 ; Russia wants, 
24 ; Moslem architecture there, 116. 

Contagious Diseases Act, 33, 38, 39. See Social 
Evil. 

Contents, 5. 

Contributions of produce, 253. See Liberality. 

Controversy, public : its value as a means of 
evangelism, 199, 201 ; between Christians and 
Moslems at Amritsar, 199, 201 ; between Rev. 
E. P. Swift and Saraswati, 201 ; qualifications 
for, 199, 201 ; disturbances from, 227. 

Conventions. See Conferences ; ills., 298. 

Conversation: a means of evangelism, 151, 152; 
in zenanas, 177, 178. 

Conversion : defined, 149 ; ordinary preparation 
for, 149, 198, 199 ; means, 149 ; of the Chuh- 
ras accounted for, 246-248 ; of India, when ? 
359-361 ; of the world, when ? 361 ; group or 
chain, 328, 331. 

Conversions : a first aim in mission work, 148, 
149 ; hard to tell by what mission methods 
(152) or persons (153, 154) secured; when rapid, 
stimulate enthusiasm, 376. 

Converts of India Missions : mostly from the 
despised and lowly, 245 ; more rapid increase 
than that of Islam or Hinduism, 352-355 ; 
growth, 384, 385. See second subject below. 

Converts of the early church like those of India, 
203, 245, 246. 

Converts of the U. P. Missions : described, 
Chapters XXI, XXII— see Contents ; classes 
drawn from, 243-248; som: from high castes, 
328 ; their baptism — see Baptism ; number, 
240, 242, 386; their distribution, 241. 242; 
illiterate generally, 243, 244.267; their em- 
ployment, 243, 244 ; sometimes fed and shel- 
tered gratis, 201, 275 ; their training — see 
Training ; baptized adults, 333, 334; Secret 
Converts, 178, 238. 239. See Christians. 

Conveyances ; various kinds, 76-81 ; when pub- 
lic, how secured, 81. 

Cook ; what he will not do, 60. 

Cooking in camp, 188, 189. 

Coolies ; their wages, 109. 

Co-operation among missions and missionaries, 
Chapter X ; between foreign workers and 
natives, 342-346. 

Corea : recent changes there, 23. 

Corinthians, First, 1:26-29 quoted, 245, 246; 
13 = 5,.7 quoted, 371. 

Corinthians, Second, 4 : 8, 9 quoted, 373. 

Cossacks : their character, 24, 27. 

Council : India, in London, 28 ; viceregal, 29. 

Courts, ecclesiastical. See Ecclesiastical. 

Courts of native houses; described, 176; ills., 
359 ; of Institute, ills., 278. 

Covenanted servants, 29. 

Covetousness of native Christians, 253. 

Cow species: worshiped, in, 112, 113; ills., 
129, 144, 367- 

Crickets deface book covers, 58. 

Crime : diminished by British Rule, 35, 127, 128 

Criticism, unfriendly : its nature and results, 219, 
220. 

Critics doubt piety of native Christians, 249. 

Crocodile : ills., 310. 

Cross : the greatest of mission life, 60, 61. 

Cuba referred to, 301. 

Culture ; of missionaries, 365-367 ; not the pri- 
mary end of missions, 148. 

Cummings, Rev. T. F. : his baptism of a Mos- 
lem family, 225. 

Curiosity draws a crowd in evangelism, 156. 



Custom House business, 12. 

Czar of Russia: his Asiatic dominions, iS; 
conquers Khiva, 23. 

Daedalus lighthouse: described, 14. 

Dak bungalow: described, 81, 82; used in 

itineration, 192. 
Dak Ghari, or Dak Gari : described, 78, 80, 81 ; 

ills., 79. 
Dakoits : depredations of, 127. 
Dal (lentils, pulse): used by missionaries, 58, 



D.D., note about, 132; por- 
54, 75: occupied by 



Dales, Rev. J. 

trait, 133. 
Dalhousie: described, 52, 

Scotch Mission, 101. 
Damien, Father, 205. 
Dandi : described, 80; ills., 49. 
Danes: began Protestant Mis-ions in India, 94; 

their fields, 97. 
Dangers : threatening Christian work in India, 

356-358. See Missions in India and Outlook. 
Dardanelles, 24. 

Dari. cotton carpet: explained, 188; in tents, 188. 
Darjiling, pronounced, and sometimes written, 

Darjeeling: a hill station, 50; capital of Bengal 

Government, 37; allusion, 91. 
Darzi, defined, 56. 
Daulah's history, 258. 
Dayananda Saraswati: founder of the Arya 

Samaj, 114; debate with Mr. Swift, 201. 
Deathbed: of Daulah, 258; of Kaka, 256; of 

Rahim Bakhsh, 255; of Chhero, 259, 260. 
Death rate: in Punjab, from different diseases, 

44-47; of male and female infants, 128. See 

also Mortality and Statistics. 
Debate, public, on religion. See Controversy. 
Decennial Missionary Conference: at Bombay, 

on education, 169: when held, 90. 
Degh river: described, 75. 
Degchi, cooking vessel: ills., 106. 
Degrees given by universities, 164. 
Dehra Dun Valley, 53. 
Deism of Aryans, 114. 
Deities, local, m. See also Gods, Idols and 

Idolatry. 
Delaware, compared with Punjab, 96. 
Delhi: railway to, 16, 76; ills, of its bazar, 155; 

Missions at, 99, 205; Hindu convention at, 115. 
Demosthenes, 175. 
Denmark: missionaries from. 94. 
Dennis, Dr., quoted, 70, 229, 230: his style. 367. 
Deodar trees: of Dharmsala, 52; ills., 49, 283. 
Depressed Classes. See Castes, Lcnu. . 
Deputy Commissioner: his office, field and im- 
portance, 30; helps missions, 226, 235; of Sial- 

kot, 279; allusions, 190, 228. 
Dera Ismail Khan, occupied by the C. M.S.. 98. 
Despised and downtrodden, reached first by the 

gospel, 167 See Castes, Low, and Converts. 
Deva Dharm Samaj. a half-way station, 167. 
Devotion: unfavorable opportunities for, among 

missionaries, 369-371. See Conferences and 

Prayer Meetings. 
Dhariwal: its woolen fabrics, 106. 
Dharmkot described, 50, 51; its temperature, 54. 
Dharmsala: described, 48-54, 75, 353; its rains, 

42, 43; picture of Sunny Side and Shady Side, 

49: union services at, 90. 
Dharmsalas, Hindu: described, 193. 
Dheds, 245. 

Dhobi, or washerman: ills., 214. 
Dhoti, or Hindu's hair tuft, described, 109. 
Dhulip Singh's portrait, 22; his strange freak, 22, 

23- 

Diarbekir, on Euphrates route, 17, 18, 



394 



TOPICAL I/VD£X 



Dilke, Lady: her view of missions, 237, 238. 
Dina Nath's character, 255. 
Dinanagar: railway to, 76; accident at, 192. 
Dingal Singh, Sardar: his kindness, 226. 
Directors: of Public Instruction, 163. See also 

Boards. 
Disciples' Mission, 97. 
Discipline, Book of: translated, 307, 308. 
Discipline, cases of: 250, 252, 272; before pancha- 
yats, 271; how affected by grant of self-govern- 
ing power, 349. 
Discouragements in work: their effect on activity, 

221, and piety, 373. 
Diseases in India: how they affect the health and 
longevity, 362-374; how they affect the temper, 
369. See Climate and below. 
Diseases of the Punjab, 45-47, 54- 
Dishonesty: common in India, 127, 142, 371, 372. 
Dispensary: at Sialkot, 181-183, 231; at Pasrur, 
182; at Jhelum, 42, 182, 229 ; at Bhera, 42, 182. 
See Hospital and Medical Missionary Work, 
District Committees: have limited powers, 29; 

help medical missionary work, 73, 181. 
Ditt, of Marali, 242. 

Division between foreigners and natives in mis- 
sions, 319, 320, 340, 342-344. 
Divisions for Commissioners, 30, 102. 
Divorce, effect of, in India, 222. 
Doctors in India, 47, 48. 
Dogra titti: beginning of work there, 242. 
Dogri language, in U. P. field, 86. 
Dogs annoying, 191; ills., 68, 367. 
Doli, in bridal procession, 187; ills., 135. See 

Palatiquin. 
Domestic conditions, Chapter VI., 150, 174-176, 

263, 264, 287. 
Doms, low-caste people, 118. 
Dover, straits of, 20. 

Drawbacks: to evangelistic work. Chapter XX 
— see Contents; to Christian Training, 275, 276; 
to Girls' Schools, 287; to Primary Schools, 
267-270; to educational work, 165, 167, 294, 
295; to itinerating work, 190 ; to bazar preach- 
ing, 157, 158; to worldly prosperity of Chris- 
tians, 325-327; to ecclesiastical courts, 299, 
300; to piety among missionaries, 368-374. 
See also Hindrances and Persecution. 
Dress: of missionaries, 56, 57; of natives, 109, 
110,263; of the different classes of Punjabies, 
120, 121; of the rich, no; of the Sikhs, 113; 
of policemen, ills , 235; of Parsees, ills., 115, 
341; of girl pupils, 286, 287, ills., 228, 288; 
native dress undesirable for missionaries, 214. 
Drunkel fair, 160. 
Drunkenness, not common in India, a foreign 

vice, 122. 
Drysdale, Mr: dismissed from the civil service 

for missionating, 34, 38. 
Duff, Dr.: founder of educational policy, 162; his 
theory, work and success, 162, 163; could be in- 
dependent, 166 ; his eloquence, 366. 
Dufferin, Lord: his viceroyalty, 31, 32; at Rawal 

Pindi durbar, 105. 
Dufferin, Lady: her medical scheme, 7%, 179. 
Duschak, on Transcaspian railway, 20. 
Dust storms: described, 43; allusion, 187. 
Duty, sense of, a sustaining power, 370. 
Dyspepsia in the Punjab, 46. 

Eagle, ills., 217; and her young, ills., 261. 

Eagle's Nest, at Dharmkot, 50. 

Earthquakes : in the Punjab, 43 ; in Kashmir, 43. 

Eastern travel : recent changes in, 9. 

Ecclesiastical Courts in U. P. Church of India, 
336, 337 ; their constitution and work, 129-131, 
133, 134, 136 ; their powers, 134-136 ; co-opera- 



Eccleiastical Courts — Continued. 

tion with the Mission, 134-136; dependence 
upon the Mission, 299 ; their work of training 
officers, 298-300 ; drawbacks to their work, 
299, 300; their qualifications for exercising au- 
thority, 340-349 ; why not wait for financial 
self-support? 348. See also Church. U. P., in 
India. 
Ecclesiastical Development and Maturity: de- 
scribed, Chapters XXVI, XXVII, XXVIII— 
see Contents ; their necessity, 310 ; what they 
include, 310, 314; how to be secured, 328- 
33i. 335, 336, 347- 
Economy of fakirism, 206, 207, 210-217. 
Edinburgh, side trip to, 13. 

Education Committee of Presbytery : examines 
Girls' B. School, 286 ; its history, 130, 336, 337. 
Education of Christians in India: anxiety for, 
among Christians themselves, 251, 252, 256, 
343 ; especially for their children, 202 ; aids 
them in worldly matters, 324, 330; highly im- 
portant every way, 267, 358; how far advanced 
generally, 121, 122, 291; how far advanced in 
U. P. Mission, 294-297; means used to secure 
improvement, 267-270, Chapters XXIV, 
XXV ; drawbacks, 267-270, 295-297. See also 
Christians , Converts, Drawbacks, Hin- 
drances and Statistics. 
Education of native ministry. See Ministers. 
Education of non-Christians in India : how far 
advanced, see Statistics, 86, 122, . 163, 165, 
175 ; of different religious sects, a comparison, 
113, 121, 122; effect on Hindu reforms, 354, 
355; effect on home life, 175; help or not to 
evangelism, 165, 173, 244, 296, 297, 358; other 
effects, 165-167, 343, &c. 
Educational Policy of Evangelism : general ac- 
count, Chapter XVI; its aim, 162; a differ- 
ent view, 166; its founder, 162; its chief 
agents, 164, 165 ; its results, 165, 173, 244, 297, 
358 ; causes of failure, 165-167 ; objections to 
it, 167, 168, 297, 343, 358; a secular burden, 
144, 145, 146; defense of it, 168, 169; present 
state of the controversy, 169 ; author's conclu- 
sion, 169, 170; suggestions of change, 170; in 
the U. P. Mission, 170-173. 
Educational System of the Indian Government: 
described, 163-165; origin, 163; Wood's de- 
spatch, 163, 164 ; Universities, 163, 164 ; Direc- 
tors, 163 ; different degrees, 164 ; dominates 
all education, 165. 166 ; Education Commission, 
164; the Punjab Branch, 164, 165; helps pri- 
vate and mission efforts, 36, 72, 73, 164, 270; 
but is said to foster infidelity unintentionally, 
151, 169. See Statistics and British Rule. 
Egypt : its Arabic, 87 ; its Moslem architecture, 
116 : its Presbytery, 347 ; its Mission, 65 ; gifts 
to its Mission from India, 315 ; passed en route, 
14. 
Ekkas : described. 80; on highways, 75, 187; 

ills., 186, 367. 
Elders of U. P. Church in India : from the In- 
stitute, 284; material for, in U. P. Mission, 
335. 34 1 ; their training possible, 271, 335; 
their fewness and the causes, 335, 336, 338 ; 
their excellent character, 340, 341 ; their work 
as evangelists, 195. 
Electric light in the Suez Canal, 13. 
Elephanta, Caves of, 15. 

Elgin, Earl of, his monument at Dharmsala, 52. 
Elgin, Lord : the present viceroy, 31, 33. 
Elliott, Sir Charles : on the value of Missions, 37, 

38 ; on missionary poverty, 215, 216. 
Eloquence of some missionaries, 365-367. 
Eminabad: its objects of interest, 104; mela at, 
160. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



395 



Emotion : its effect on the nerves, 363. 

Employer's relation to employees : a means of 
evangelism, 150, 151 ; an obstruction to close 
Christian fellowship, 66, 67. See Autocracy . 

Encampment of itinerating missionaries : de- 
scribed, 187, 188, 191-193; its varied experi- 
ences, 188-192. 

England : its climate, 362 ; passage through, 9- 

13- 

English Church. See Church of England. 

English Government in India. See British 
Rule. 

English Language: how spoken by the British, 
64 ; by Americans, 64 ; by some natives of In- 
dia, 86; by Eurasians and poor whites, 86; 
taught in the schools of India, 86; but few 
know it, 86, 290; not likely to come into gen- 
eral use, 86; compared with other tongues, 88; 
do missionaries improve in it or the contrary? 
366, 367 ; its proper use a guarantee of excel- 
lence in acquired tongues, 87. 

English Officers: their peculiarities and their in- 
tercourse with missionaries, 63, 64. See also 
Anglo-Indians and Europeans. 

English Presbyterian Mission, 97. 

English sytcm of medicine, 48. See also Medi- 
cal Science, Surgeons. &c. 

Englishmen: compared with Russians, 24-27; 
rivals of Russians, 24-27 ; in India, 28-30, 107, 
119, 120; battle of Ramnagar, 104, 105. See 
also Europeans, English Officers, British 
Colony and Anglo-Indians. 

Entrance Standard : defined, 164 ; for native 
ministers, 317 ; not many passed, 294. 

Ephesians 4 : 13-16 quoted, 382. 

Episcopalians : their style of kneeling, 265 ; 
polity, 273; chaplains in India, 36; their 
India Mission statistics, 384, 385. See Church 
of England, C. M. S., S. P. G., &c. 

Esplanade, Bombay : its fine buildings, 15. 

Established Church in India, 36. 

Etiquette among Anglo-Indians, 64, 367; among 
Orientals. 264. 

Euphrates Route to India, 17, 18. 

Eurasians: who they are, 120; classed as 
Christians, 119; their rights, &c, 120; num- 
ber in the Punjab, 120; dress, 12c ; their Eng- 
lish, 86; style of living, 2C4, 206, 212; this 
style recommended by some to missionaries, 
205-208, but improperly, 208-217. 

Europe : passage across to India, 9-11 ; allusions, 
84, 364. 

European system of medicine, 48. 

Europeans: in India; 28-30, 107, 119; in the 
Punjab, 119, 120; their employment, 119: atti- 
tudes towards the natives, 66-68, 343, 344 ; 
how affected by the India climate, 362, 363, 
368, 369. See also Englishmen, English Offi- 
cers, Anglo-Indians and British Colony. 

Evangelical grade of ministers. See under Min- 
isters, Native. 

Evangelistic work : described. Chapters XV to 
XXII — see Contents ; preparation for, 140, 
141, 196, 197; general principles, 148. 149; 
home religion, 150: social intercourse, 151, 
152, 167; bazar preaching, 154-158; Mela 
work, 159-161 ; through schools, 162-173, 267 ; 
in Zenanas, 174-179 ; medical means, 145, 146, 
179-183; through literature, 184, 185, 308; 
through itineration, 185-195; through rituals, 
198, 199 ; through apologies and controversy, 
198-201 ; through worldly influences, 201—203 ; 
through asceticism, 203-217; hindrances, 218- 
236, 274, 275 ; results, 237-260 ; result in U. P. 
field summarized, 350 ; different methods com- 
pared, 154, 158, 161, 165, 173, 178, 181, 183, 184, 



Evangelistic work — Continued. 

193, 194, &c. ; evangelism by natives, 195, 196, 
254 ; would be helped by more independent 
church courts, 344, 346 ; helps self-support, 327, 
328, 330, 331; preaching needed in, 156, 157, 
i99> 37o. 

Evidences of Christianity : taught in schools, 
198 ; Dr. Alden's book translated, 185 ; other 
similar books, 185, 308. 

Evils in mission fields and their removal, 342-344. 

Ewing's " Greek Lexicon," 307. 

Examinations : of Universities, 164; passing 
these the great aim of scholars, 166. 

Exchange to India : rates of, 73. 

Excise laws, 33, 38, 39. 

Exorcist of Pasrur converted, 251. 

Eye diseases in the Punjab, 46. 

Faith : strengthened by the presence of heathen- 
ism, 376. 

Faith Mission, 97. 

Fakinsm : described, 204, 205, 208, 209; recom- 
mended to Christian laborers, 205, 323 ; argu- 
ments favoring, 206-208 ; arguments against, 
208-217; injurious to health and life, 48, 50, 
216. 

Fakirs : described, 204, 205 ; means of livelihood, 
204, 205, 206, 321; influence, 206; number in 
India, 180,206 ; liberty given them, 156 ; hard- 
ships, 212 ; a help to Hinduism, 205; help to 
Islam, 117 ; give trouble, 191 ; ills., 124 ; Chris- 
tian fakirs, 205, 206. 

False impressions regarding evangelism cor- 
rected, 152-154. 

False religions : not entirely destitute of truth. 
199 ; but to be destroyed, 356. 

Families, conversion of: difficult among caste 
people, 224, 225 : but important, 328, 331. 

Family religion : a means of evangelism, 150. 

Family worship : among missionaries. 57. 

Farman Shah's firmness under persecution, 255. 

Farming as an employment for native Chris- 
tians. 324, 325. 

Fashion does not trouble missionaries, 56, 57, 
367- 

Fasting: as a religious exercise for Christians, 
266 ; common in the east, 116, 117, 205, 266. 

Fazl Din: testimony regarding him, 255; por- 
trait, 342. 

Fees: in schools, the effect, 166; in medical 
work, 181. 

Female education in India. 175. See also Ze- 
nana, Women, Schools, &c. 

Females : mortality of, 44, 48, 128. 

Ferns of Dharmsala, 51, 52. 

Ferries over streams, 75, 76. 

Festivals : Hindu, 113; Moslem. 116, 117. 

Feudatory states. See Native States. 

Fevers : in India. 46 ; in the Punjab, 45-47. 

Fields : of different India Missions, 97 : of Pun- 
jab Missions, 08-103 ; of U. P Mission, 99-103, 
Chapters XI, XII. 

Filthiness : of villages, 263 ; of new school 
pupils, 286; of fakirs, 205. 

Finances of U. P. Mission : good, Chapter VII ; 
as to current expenses, 69 : as to special ob- 
jects. 70 ; as to permanent improvements, 70, 
71 ; their multiplicity, 141-144 ; how managed, 
136, 137 ; a burden on missionaries, 146, 147. 
See also Income. 

Financial commissioner's tour, 234. 

Fire Arms : forbidden to natives, 127 ; allowed 
to missionaries and other Europeans, 190. 

Flesh : abstinence from as food, 112. 

Flowers : ills., 147, 293. 

Flying foxes, ills., 318. 



&9G 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Food : of missionaries, 57, 58, 189 ; of natives, 
66. 

Forced labor in India, 81, 234. 

Foreign Board. See Board 0/ Foreign Mis- 
sions. 

Foreign Missions after a Century, quoted, 70, 
229, 230. 

Forman, Rev. J. N. : his experience in self- 
denial, 215. 

Forms and ceremonies as means of evangelism, 
198. 

Fort : at Attock, 104 , of Hari Parbat, at Srina- 
gar, ills. , 36. 

Fourth of July in India, 63, 367. 

Free Baptist Mission, 97. 

Free Church of Scotland : its fields, 97; commis- 
sioners, 133 ; good educational work, 165. 

Freedmen's Missions : contributions to in India, 

3*5- 
French tongue : compared with others, 85, 86, 88. 
Fret and worry. See Worry. 
Fretwell, Mrs. : at Sialkot Dispensary, 182. 
Friends' Missions : 97. 
Frugality and industry of natives, 123. 
Fruits ot the Punjab, also imported, 57. 
Fund: Stewart, 70, 71, 279, 289; Q. C, 71; 

Lady Dufferin, 72, 179. 
Furloughs, needed by missionaries, 54, 371, 372. 
Furniture: of missionaries, 56, 188; of villagers, 

263, ills., 65, 359. 

Gaddi people of Dharmsala, 50. 

Gajipur, now Rawal Pindi, 103. 

Gali, defined, 227. 

Game, found in itinerating, 187, 190 

Gandaru, a peak at Dharmsala, 51. 

Ganda's portrait, 342. 

Ganesh, or Ganesha, the god of wisdom, m ; 
ills., 126. 

Ganga, from hemp plant, 122. 

Gangohar, home of Bir Singh, 235. 

Ganpati, images of, cast into the sea, 353. 

Gari, general name for a wagon, 78-80; dak 
gari. See Dak Gari. 

General Assembly of U. P. Church : on the 
baptism of polygamists, 222 ; establishes Pun- 
jab Synod, and two new Presbyteries, 130, 
336; introduces ladies into the Mission, 131, 
132 ; receives a memorial from native ministers, 
344, 347 : a natural mediator between parties 
in the field, 132, 133 ; allusions, 288, 289. 

Gentleness of natives, 122, 123. 

Geographic facts about our field, 105, 106. 

Geok Tepe conquered, 23. 

Geologic facts about our field, T05, 106. 

German Evangelical Mission, 97. 

Germans in India. 97, 107. 

Ghakkars, described, 103. 

G/za*-a : its use, 78; ills., 49, 65, 124, 153, 155, 

187, 359- 

Ghi, clarified butter. 58. 

Gibraltar : route via, 10, 13. 

Giffin, Mrs. E. M. : her visit to India, 65. 

Gilahries, squirrels, ills., 250. 

Gillespie, John, D. D., visits India, 64. 

Girishk, on the Helmund river, 20. 

Girls' Boarding School at Sialkot : under the 
Mission, 137, 285, 286 : its history and 
character, 284-288 ; origin, 284; location. 28s 
buildings and court, 285 ; helped by the Q C 
Fund, 71 : object. 285, 286 ; a day school also 
285 ; pupils trained in native style, 186 ; pupils 
eating, ills., 288; course of study. 286 
heathen teachers of, 286, 296, 297 : teaches 
Shorter Catechism. 306 ; drawbacks to, 287 
results of, 288 ; statistics, 284, 288. 



Girls' schools : in Jhelum, 170, 229 ; at Rawal 
Pindi, ills., 228 ; at Gujranwala, 170, 172, 228 ; 
at Sialkot, 179; drawbacks to, 287; fewer 
pupils than in Boys' Schools, 287, statistics, 
175, 284, 288; allusion, 137. 

Given, Miss : Jhelum Schools, 172 ; and the 
persecution of Gulam Bibi, 231. 

Glasgow: side trip to, 13. 

Goats, ills., 52, 153; theirfood, 190. 

Gods: of the Hindus, 111, 112, 125; of the 
Sikhs, 112, 113; of the Jains, 113, of Bud- 
dhists, 114; immoral, 125. See Deities and 
Idolatry. 

Golden Temple at Amritsar, 112. 

Gonda and Rev. S. Knowles, 161. 

Good Hope . Cape of, 9. 

Good works of the heathen, 321, 322. 

Gordon, Rev. Andrew, D. D.: talk at Kala 
Patthar, 152; theo. professor, 288, 289; his 
literary style, 367 ; favored Persian Punjabi, 
302 ; aids in Psalm translation, 303. 

Gordon, Miss E. G. : her adventure with a 
snake, 45 ; an experience in zenana work, 
228, 229. 

Gordon, Miss Euphie : her medical work, 181. 

Gordon, Miss Ida, visits India, 64. 

Gospel : filters up instead of down, 245 , how 
to secure for it a favorable hearing, 149, 150; 
received with joy, 252. 

Gossner's Mission, 97. 

Gough, Lord : at Ramnagar, 104, 105. 

Government of India. See British Rule. 

Government Schools. See British Rule, 
Educational and System Schools. 

Governors : their appointment, powers and 
salary, 28, 29, 30. 

Governors-General. See Viceroys. 

Govind Singh, a Sikh Guru. 112, 113. 

Graces needed by a missionary, 378-380. 

Grain of the Punjab, 57, 58. 

Granth, written by Arjan and worshiped, 112. 

Grants-in-aid of schools and hospitals, 36, 72, 
73, 270; conditions on which they are given 
and the effect, 166. 

Great Britain : relations to China and other 
neighbors, 21 ; connection with India, 28 ; mis- 
sionaries from, 385. 

Greece : Bible distribution in, 301. 

Greek invasions of India. 27. 

Greek medical system in India, 47, 48. 

Greek tongue : its study in the Theo. Seminary 
defended, 290-292; needed by ministers, 290, 
291; use in Bible translation, 291; easily learned 
by students. 292 ; text books in Urdu, 307. 

Gugga : tradition about, 118. 

Gugga gana described, 118, 119. 

Gujranwala City : its High School. 72, 73, 170, 
172, 321; birthplace of Ranjit Singh, 104; its 
mausoleum, 104; a Sikh center, 104: book- 
shop there, 184 ; its Girls' Schools described, 
170, 172, 228, 229 ; its zenana work, 229 ; pub- 
lic debate there, 201 ; non-Christians of, 237 ; 
Hindu women of, 238, 239 ; a Muhammadan 
of, 321 ; its blankets, 106 ; allusion, 285. 

Gujranwala District : historical connection with 
the Sikhs, 104, 105 ; Sikhs common now, 121 ; 
vielas there. 160 ; places of interest in, 104 ; 
mortality in 1890, 46; work there, 233, 234 ; 
mission boundary in, iot ; movement toward 
Christianity at Dogra tatti, 242 ; two low-caste 
Christians of, 257, 258; Musallies of, 246; 
allusion. 90. 

Gujranwala West . sparsely settled, 103 ; histor- 
ical places, 103, 104; agricultural settlement on 
the Chenab Canal, 325; work there, 233 ; statis* 
tics, 241, 386 ; allusion, 103. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



397 



Gujranwala Presbytery organized, 336. 

Gujrat District : occupied by the Scotch Mis- 
sion, y9 ; mortality in 1890, 46. 

Gujrat Province : the Dheds of, 245. 

Gujrati tongue, 85. 

Gulu Shah's tomb and its cattle fair, 160. 

Gurdaspur City : founded, 104 ; medical work, 
181; book-shop, 184; Mission House, ills., 
368; W. M. S. organized there, T31. 

Gurdaspur District : in U. P. field, 99 : dense 
population, 103; woolen fabrics of Dhariwal, 
106; sugar of Sujaupur, 106; Ravi at Mad- 
hopur, 105 ; in Indian mutiny, 105 ; Sikhs 
there, 104, 121 ; 7?ielas there, 160, 274 ; some 
work there, 161 ; Dalhousie surrendered, 101. 

Gurdaspur Presbytery organized, 336. 

Gurkhas at Dharmsala, 50; in army, 50, 107. 

Gurmukhi tongue: described, 86, 302. 

Gurmukhi version of the Bible : its history, 302. 

Guru (religious teacher) : Sikh example, 112, 
113 ; Sansi example, 118. 

Gypsies in India, 118. 

Hail on the plains, 43. 

Hair, crown tuft of, called a Choti, 106, 120 ; 
ills., 325. 

Hakims defined, 47. 

Halfway stations between Christianity and 
heathenism, 167. 

Hall Line of Steamers, 11. 

Hanuman, the monkey god, m. 

Haqq, Rev. Aziz ul : his lawsuits, 226. 

Haqq-i-Shu/a , 143, 225. 

Haramuk, a mountain in Kashmir, 53. 

Harbor and Light House, ills., 183. 

Hardwar mela, ills., 159. 

Hares, ills., 254. 

Har Govind, a Sikh guru, 112. 

Hari Parbat Fort, at Srinagar, ills, 36. 

Hari Rud river, road along, 20. 

Hawkins, Bible translator, 300. 

Hazara District : described, 102 ; transfer to U. 
P. Mission, 102. 

Hazelts Annual cited, 29. 

Health ; conditions of, in India, Chapter V ; how 
affected by mission work there, 362-365, 385; 
destroyed by Salvation Army methods, 216. 

Health resorts id India: described, 50-54 ; their 
drawbacks, 54. 

Heat in India : season of, described, 40-42 ; very 
trying, 368, 369 ; guards against, 41, 58. 

Heathen : education of.- See Education 0/ Non- 
Christians . 

Heathen assistants : in schools, 146, 168, 170, 
172, 268, 286, 296, 297 ; in medical work, 296. 

Heathenism ; its atmosphere stifling to piety, 
37°- 37 2 ! its repelling effect, 376 ; to be resisted 
without compromise, 356 ; the death struggle 
yet to come, 201. 

Hebrew text books in Urdu, 307. 

Hebrew tongue : needed by native ministers, 290, 
291, 302; should be taught in theo. semi- 
naries, 290-292 ; easily learned by Indian stu- 
dents, 292. 

Helmund river : road beside it, 20. 

Herat : on the road to India, 19. 

Heresy in India, 290. 

Hermannsburgh Mission, 97. 

Herodotus speaks of the Indus, 103. 

Heterogeneousness of Indian society, 68. 

Hidayat Masih's restoration, 255. 

High Caste Converts. See Converts, Castes 
and Christians. 

High Churchism, or Ritualism, in India, 64 : no 
help in evangelism, 198. See Oxford 
Brotherhood and Ceremonies. 



High Courts, 29, 30. 

High Schools defined, 163 ; in missions, 165 ; at 
Sialkot, 170; at Gujranwala, 170, 172, 321; at 
Jhelum, 170; at Rawal Pindi, 102, 172, ills., 
171 : C. T. I., see Christian Training Insti- 
tute ; non-Christian teachers in, see Heathen 
Assistants; secular work in, 144, 145; re- 
ligious exercises in, 172, 281, 282 ; usefulness 
in training Christians, 278, 284, 294 ; doubts of 
evangelistic usefulness, 165-170, 173 ; improve- 
ments suggested, 170 ; allusion, 137. 

Hill Stations in India, 50-54. 

Hill water-carrier, ills., 277. 

Hillah, on Euphrates route, 17. 

Hill, of white ants, ills., 59. 

Himalaya mountains; described, 98; snow- 
capped, 106 ; snow fields seen from Landour, 
53 ; at Dharmsala, 51 ; in Kashmir, 53 ; native 
states in, 98; a barrier, 21 ; different peaks, 51, 
54- 

Hindi tongue : a branch of the Sanskrit, 85 ; a 
constituent part of the Urdu, 85 ; sometimes 
studied by Punjab missionaries, 86. 

Hindrances : to our mission work generally, 
Chapter XX ; physical, 218 ; linguistic and 
educational, 218 : from the government, 37-39, 
218, 219 ; from the lives of Europeans, 37, 64, 
124, 125, 219; from unfriendly criticism, 219, 
220; from defects of laborers, 220, 221 ; from 
times of communion, 222 ; from false religions, 
224-236; from caste, 223-225; from mission 
policy, 319, 320; see Policy, Educational 
Policy and 356-358 ; hindrances to getting a 
location for work, 225-227; to prosecution of 
work, 227, 228; to the hearing of the gospel, 
228. 229 ; to earnest inquiry, 229 ; to faith in 
Christ, 229, 230; to baptism of higher classes, 
230-234; to baptism of low-castes, 233, 234; 
to the peace of Christians, 234-236 ; to primary 
training, 275 ; to getting land, 143 ; to educa- 
tional work, 167, 168, 267-270, 295-297, 343, 
358. See also Drawbacks and Persecution. 

Hindu : art, 108 ; barber, ills., 209 ; carpenter, 
ills., 108; doctors, 47, 48; education, 121, 
122 ; fakirs, 204, 205 ; farmers, 243 ; medical 
work, 47, 48 ; music, 304-306 ; sacred books, 
35, 114, 355; reforms. 114, 355; washermen, 
ills., 214. See also Hindus and Hinduism. 

Hindu Heterodoxy, quoted from, 213. 

Hinduism, modern: described, 110-112, 114; its 
pantheon, in, 113. 360; its gods and idolatry, 
in; see also Idolatry, Gods and Deities; its 
false science, 162 ; its view of marriage and 
females, 125, 126; teaches gentleness, 123 ; but 
persecutes, 246; its songs, 306: its captains- 
general, 205 ; relation to Sikhs, Jains, Bud- 
dhists, Aryans and others, 113-115, 116. 118; 
among low castes, 118; somewhat declining, 
355 ." grosser forms abandoned, 354 ; recupera- 
tive power, 356 : how best attacked. 162 ; must 
be destroyed, 356. See Hindu. Hindus and 
Xatives. 

Hindus : of Aryan race, no; their numbers, no, 
35 2 -354; castes, in, 116, 123, 124; dress, 109, 
no, 120, 121; habits. 120; tika. 120; towns, 
109; manner of eating, ills., 106; education, 
121, 122 ; pancha-yats . 271 ; New Year's day, 
160; their Tri-murti, 11 1 ; pantheism and 
polj'theism, 43, in ; objects of worship, 43, 
in, 112 : manner of worship, tn ; gods 
named, in ; gods immoral, 125; obstructions 
to reaching heaven, 126 ; their philosophies, 
246; festivals, 112, 160; morals, 122-128 ; toler- 
ant sometimes, 123; yet persecute, 126, 127; 
temperate, 122 ; liberal, 321, 322, 353 ; adverse 
to killing animals, especially the cow species, 



398 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Hindus — Continued. 

ii2, 190; religious devotion, 353, 354; women 
especially bigoted, 48 ; home religious life, 112 ; 
how they restore apostates, 230, 231 ; hate 
Moslems, 117; in our schools, 267, 286; in S. 
Schools, 195, 267; at bazar preaching, 157; in 
Civil Service, 325 ; admire Christian home 
life, 216; sometimes converted, 244; converts, 
beneficiaries, 275 ; sometimes help us, 232 ; 
oftener oppose us, 226, 232 ; persecute con- 
verts, 126, 127, 230, 231 ; rebel against mission 
work, 229 ; reforms, 355 ; Sabbath, a holiday, 
228 ; allusions, 21, 159, 170, 204, 209, 219, 239, 
247, 326, 381. See Natives, Hindu and Hin- 
duism. 

Hindustani tongue. See Urdu. 

Hiouen Thsang's visit to India, 103, 104. 

Hissar, on new route, 16. 

History of the Church in Urdu, 307. 

Houses : of missionaries, described, 55, 56 ; of 
natives, 108, 109, 263. See Bungalows and 
Natives of India. 

Hukka, or huqqa, native pipe, 66; ills., 153. 

Hukma's holy joy, 255. 

Hunter, Sir Wm. : on universities, 164 ; favors 
austerity in missionaries, 205 ; on languages of 
India, 85 ; on Indian poetry and music, 304; 
on medicine in India, 47. 

Husband and wife in India, 174-176, 228, 229. 

Hydaspes, the Jhelum, 103. 

Hydraotes, the Ravi, 103. 

Hyphasis, the Beas, 103. 

Ibbetson, Denzil, B. C. S. : quoted, 119. 

Ibis boat mentioned, 193. 

Idolatry: in India, 110-116; at Bombay, 353. 
See Gods and Deities. 

Ignorance of new converts, 244, 267, 273, 275. 

Illinois compared with our Mission, 103. 

Illiteracy of the Indian people, 165. See Igno- 
rance and Natives. 

Ill health. See Health. 

Improvement of native Christians, 254. See 
Christians and Training. 

Income of U. P. Mission : its sources, 69-73 ; 
from home church, 69-71 ; from foreign 
laborers, 71, 72; from native Christians, 72; 
from English officers and residents, 72; from 
the government proper, 72, 73 ; from fees, 73 ; 
from favorable exchange, 73. See also Fi- 
nances. 

Independence of Mission churches : the great 
thing aimed at, 148, 261, 310 ; how far possessed 
by Japanese and other churches, 312, 313. 

Independence of native ministers necessary, 291, 
340, 341 ; aided by a classical education, 290, 
291 ; by freedom from an autocratic policy, 
341 ; and by the grant of more self-governing 
power, Chapter XXVIII. 

India: journey to, see America; its area, 95; 
population, 95. 1 10 ; growth of its population, 
352 ; its tongues, 85 ; its government, see 
British Rule, British Territory and Native 
States ; a rival of Russia, 19 ; its people de- 
scribed, Chapter XII ; compared with Eu- 
ropeans, 122-128; as a Mission field, 94, 95; 
its Missions, map of, 97 ; when it will be- 
come Christian, 359-361 ; referred to, 364, 367, 
369. 37i, 376. 

Indian Army. See Army in India 

"Indian Empire," by Sir Wm. Hunter: cited, 
47 ; 85, 304. 

Indian Evangelical Review : a help to Missions, 
92 ; quoted on fakirs, 206 ; an article quoted, 
290, 291 ; cited on division between mission- 
aries and natives, 343, 344 ; quoted on growth 



Indian Evangelical Review — Continued. 

of Islam, 352j 353 ; cited on the conversion of 
India, 360 ; article on ill health, 364 ; article on 
Bible translation, 301 ; article on baptism of 
minors, 230, 231. 

Indian Government. See British Rule. 

Indian Home Mission, 97. 

Indian Missions. See Missions of India. 

Indian Ocean, 2. 

Indian Standard ; a help to Missions, 92. 

Indian Witness: a help to Missions, 92. 

Indo-European race, 107. 

Indus : receives the five rivers, 98, mentioned by 
Herodotus, 103 ; crossed by Alexander, 103; 
boundary of Rawal Pindi, 102; at Attock, 

10 5- 

Industrial training: discussed, 324, 326; at Se- 
cundia, Ludhiana and Lucknow, 324 ; of U. 
P. Mission, 324; hindrances to, 326; should 
be given native Christians, 331. 

Infanticide, female : common, 128. 

Infidelity, Western: in India, 114, 117, 151, 219; 
fostered by government education, so said, 
151, 169. 

Influence of India Missions, 237, 238. 

Inglis, John: at Sialkot, 279. 

Inns in India. See Rest Houses. 

Inquirers : their difficulty, 229, 230 ; taught, 272 ; 
desiring worldly help, 203. 

Inspection: by sub-superintendents, 271, 272; 
by missionaries, 272 ; by School Inspectors, 
163, 270. 

Inspectors of Schools : Mission, 270 ; govern- 
ment, 163, 270. 

Instrumental music, 156. 

Intellect and intelligence : how affected by mis- 
sionary life, 365-367. 

Intemperance: an obstruction to evangelism, 
222. 

Intermediate class on railways, 77. 

International Series of S. S. Lessons, 267. 

Intoxicants of India, 38, 39, 122. 

Invasion of fields, harmful, 89, 95, 96, 220, 358, 

Ireland : seen en route, 12. 

Irish Presbyterian Mission, 97. 

Irkutsk founded, 23. 

Isaac, J. : position in C. T. I., 282, 284; por- 
trait of himself and family, 252. 

Isai, explained, 203. 

Isaiah 58 : 10, n quoted, 377. 

Islam persecutes, 117, 201, 231-233, 235, 246. See 
Muhammadanis77i and Muhammadans. 

Israelites : their departure from Egypt, 14. 

Italian ports, 9, 11. 

Italian shops, 157. 

Itinerating work : described, 184-195 ; different 
kinds, 185, 186; itinerating with tents, 186- 
193 ; preparation for it, 186 ; the caravan, 
186; the journey, 186, 187; the encampment, 
187-189, 225 ; the tents, 188 : encampment at 
night, 188, 189; supplies, 189, 190, 227; itin- 
erating without tents, 192, 193 ; with boats, 
193 ; results of intineration, and its excellences, 
193, 195; period of itineration, 186, 193; sec- 
ular work connected with it, 142, 143 ; ills., 
186. 

Jackals: met in itinerating, 187: ills., 65, 192. 

Jadjodh Singh, sardar : and the Sialkot hospital, 
226. 

Jahangir's tomb, 104. 

Jains ; their number, no ; tenets and character, 
113 ; caste. 113, 116; increasing, 352. 

Jalandhar District : occupied by Am. Presby- 
terians. 98 ; infant death rate of its males and 
females, 128. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



399 



not assigned in a Mission set- 

: his aid in translating the Pun- 

via, 17; its self-supporting 
their independence, 312 ; allu- 



m zenanas, 



77; 



Tamadar, a petty officer : arrests Rura, 235. 

Jamu City : railway to, 76. 

Jamu territory ; 
tlement, 101. 

Janvier, Rev. L. 
jabi Bible, 302, 

Japan ; route 
churches, 311 ; 
sions, 23, 364. 

Jawala : monitor of the Institute, 284. 

Jebel Atakah, on the Red Sea, 14. 

Jerome, a fakir, 206. 

Jersey City, 286. 

Jessup, Dr. : his oratory, 366. 

Jewelry : worn by many, 
ills., 174, 228, 325. 

Jeypore, on road to the Punjab, 16. 

Jhang: described, 99, 193 ; its sparse population, 
103 ; connected with Sikhs, 104 ; Shiahs there, 
121 ; its inlaid work, 106; occupied by U. P. 
Mission, 99, 100; allusion, 242. 

Jhelum Cantonment, 31, 105. 

Jhelum City: its census of males and females, 
128 ; dispensary and hospital, 182 ; convention 
at, ills., 298; Mission House, ills., 144; 
church, ills., 298 ; book-shop, 157, 184 ; Hindu 
and Moslem revolts, 176, 229 ; Girls' Schools, 
170, 172; medical work, 182; Boys' School, 
170; allusion, 296. 

Jhelum District : skirted by Jhang, 100 ; its 
mountains, 46, 105 ; salt, 57 ; Shiahs, 121 ; 
Musallies, 246. 

Jhelum Mission District : includes Bhera, 182 ; 
progress there, 241, 386; allusion, 242. 

Jhelum river: one of the "five rivers," 98; 
same as the Hydaspes, 103 ; crossed by Alex- 
ander, 103; borders Rawal Pindi, 102; in 
Kashmir, 53; in Jhang, 193; ills., 36 86, 

357- 
Jilalpur, where Alexander crossed the Jhelum, 103. 
Jiwan Mai : work in C. T. I., 282. 
Jogi, a species of Hindu fakir, 321. 
Johnson, Sophia E., M. D. : medical work, 181, 

182 ; opposition to her dispensary work, 229 ; 

at a serai, ills., 182; on higher education of 

Christians, 296 ; her loss by floods, 42. 
Journey to India. See America. 

iubal Sukr, on Red Sea, 15. 
ubal Tur, on Red Sea, 14. 
udgeship, a prize, 29. 
Judges' salary in the Punjab, 324. 
Juggernaut, or Jaganath, ills., 354. 
Jugglers : may perform in bazars, 156. 
Jungle, ills., 161. 

Julian: described, 109, no; when removed, 
264; ills., 342. 

Kabiraj mentioned, 47. 

Kabul river, a branch of the Indus, 98. 

Kachchha, 76. 

Kadian, allusion to, 201. 

Kafiristan : no trouble to India, 21. 

Kaka's happy death, 256. 

Kala Patthar, black rock, 152. 

Kalanaur : Akbar crowned there, 104 ; mela 

there, 160. 
Kalbadevi Road, Bombay, ills. , 375. 
Kandahar, 19. 
Kangra Valley : in C. M. S. field, 98 ; its tea and 

rice, 51, 57. • 

Kankar described, 74, 75. 
Karachi: railway to. 76; routes via, 10, n, 15, 

16. x 7 , 18. 
Karens : alluded to, 245 ; their self-supporting 

churches, 311. 
Karrri Bakhsh's conversion, 242. 



Kashmir : described, 53, 54 ; in C. M. S. field, 
98 ; reached easiest from Murree, 102 ; boats 
used there, 193 ; its earthquakes, 43 ; its 
tongue, 86 ; medical treatment of its Maha- 
raja and his family, 48; cholera in 1892, 54; 
summer capital, Srinagar, ills., 36; on a lake 
in Kashmir,///.?., 55; the Jhelum river there, 
36, 86, 357 ; boats, bridges, houses, ills., 36, 

Khaji's faithfulness to her children, 255. 

Khajiar lake, near Dalhousie,. 52. 

Khaki, or dust-colored, garments, 56. 

Khalsa, a Sikh Council, 113. 

Khargosh, hares, ills., 254. 

Khasis, alluded to, 245. 

Khatola, ills., 49. 

Khatriyas : at dispensaries, 181 ; allusion, 245. 

Khewra : bazar preaching there. 90. 

Khiva fell in 1873, 23. 

Khojak tunnel described, 19. 

Khokand annexed, 23. 

Kichari described, 58. 

Killen's "Ancient Church " translated, 307. 

Kingdom of heaven : recognized specially by 
missionaries, 368, 371. 

Kipling, Rurtyard : his stories of India life, 124, 
125. 

Kirkhian, windows, ills., 144, 368. 

Kizl Arvat : taken, 23 ; railway to, 19. 

Knowles, Rev. S., his success at melas, 161. 

Kohat War, 22. 

Kols, alluded to, 245. 

Koran: as viewed by Moslems, 115: com- 
mitted by maulvies, 117; against strong drink, 
122 ; against usury, 123 ; quoted at bazar 
preaching, 157. 158. 

Kotgarh, beyond Simla, 53. 

Kotla, shrines at, 353. 

Koweit, on Euphrates route, 17. 

Krasnovodsk, occupied, 23. 

Krishna : his images common, n 1. 

Kulu : trip through, 53, 54. 

Kunal Patthar, a peak at Dharmsala, 51. 

Kursi : defined, 177 ; ills., 359. 

Kurt a : described, 109, no; ills., 124, 184, 
228. 

Kwaja Amran Mountains, on road to Kandahar, 
19. 

Ladakh occupied by Moravians, 99. 

Laddha: at Ramnagar, 234. 

Ladies' Association of the Church of Scotland, 
279, 284. 

Lady Dufferin scheme and fund, 72, 179. 

Lady missionaries : their rights and powers in 
the Mission, 131, 132 ; work, 174-183, 272 ; pub- 
lic discourses, 150, 178,179; house in Jhelum, 
ills., 144; how work affects their piety, 378. 
See Women, Zenana and Medical. 

Lahore : capital of the Punjab, 30 ; to London, 
18; route via, 16, 18, 20. 

Lahore Christian College : its Christian students, 
169; excellent character, 173. 

Lahore District : its roads and railways, 75, 76 ; 
in Amer. Pres. Mission, 98 ; allusions, 28, 104, 
325. 

Lahul: Buddhists, there, 114; occupied by Mo- 
ravians, 99. 

Laka, near Dharmsala, 52. 

Lai Beg. See Bala Shah. 

Lala Musa and the Sind Sagar railway, 76 ; al- 
lusion, 152. 

Lambardar- : described, 189; lower than a 
Zaildar, 226 ; sometimes indifferent to misson- 
aries, 191. 

Land laws in India, 143. 



400 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Land purchasing. See Real Estate. 

Landaur: described, 52, 53. 

Langoti : described, 109 ; ills., 155, 187, 214, 277, 
3 2 5- 

Language: acquisition of, 86-88, 136, 140; easily 
acquired by Europeans or not, 292 ; a foreign 
language unfavorable to devotion, 369, 370. 

Languages of India, 85 ; their study, 86-88, 136, 
140. 

Lansdowne, Marquis of: his viceroyalty, 32, 33 ; 
portrait, 33. 

Lansing, Dr. : his eloquence, 366. 

Lawsuits, as means of persecution, 226. See 
Hindrances. 

Lay missionaries, male, 146. 

Learning of missionaries, 365-367. 

Leaven- like influence of the gospel, 195, 196. 

Legislation in, and for, India, 28, 29. 

Leipzig Mission, 97. 

Leopard : ills. , 230. 

Leprosy piopagated by vaccination, 47. 

Liberality of Hindus and Moslems, 321, 322. 

Liberality of missionaries, 289, 377. 

Liberality of native Christians : instances, 314, 
3 1 5j 2 53> 2 55 '■> hindered by Mission policy, 
319, 320; further increase possible, 319; the 
tithe system, 320-322 ; how to be increased, 
328-330; efforts made and success, 314,315; 
liberality of the Ludhiana Mission and the C. 
M. S., 331 ; of M. E. native church and the 
Congregational, 332 ; how affected by the 
grant of authority to natives, 348, 349. 

Liberty of Christians in India less than that of 
other sects, 38. 

Licentiate : defined, 340 ; his duties, 272. 

Lieut. -Governors : their position and salary, 29, 
30 : of the Punjab, 33, 34 ; their tours, 234. 

Likar's Christian walk, 255, 256. 

Linga and Youni, in. 

Linguistic conditions in India, Chapter IX. 

Linguistic hindrances to work, 218. 

Liquor trade in India, 38, 39. 

Literature : as an evangelistic agency, 184, 185 ; 
used in lower training, 273, 274 ; its forms, 184 ; 
its languages, 184; its sources, 185; that of 
the Sialkot Mission, and Presbytery, 130, 185, 
307 ; a secular burden, 146 ; co-operation in 
producing, 92, 93 ; in the vernaculars of India 
described, 300-309. 

Lithographing used in India, 268, 269. 

Liver complaint in India, 46. 

Liverpool: to India, 9-15 ; its sights, 13; allu- 
sion, 9. 

Living in India ; different modes of, 204, 205 ; 
modes adopted by Christian workers and mis- 
sionaries, 205, 319. 

Lizards : in houses, 58 ; ills. , 104. 

Locusts, ills., 139. 

London: excursion to, 13 ; to India, 9-20. 

London Missionary Society : enters India, 94 ; 
fields, 97 ; methods of work, 212 ; in Mada- 
gascar, 311 ; allusion, 300. 

London Times. See Times. 

Longevity : of natives of India, 44 ; of mis- 
sionaries, 364, 365, 385. 

Lord's Prayer: to be committed before baptism, 
219, 220. 

Lord's Supper : how dispensed in the U. P. 
field, 266 ; by whom dispensed, 273. 

Lota, a round drinking vessel, ills. , 65, 106. 

Low-caste people See Castes, Low. 

Lower Primary School Standard, defined, 164, 
267 ; referred to, 284, 294. See Primary 
Schools. 

Lucas, Rev. J. J., D. D. : article on Bible Trans- 
lation, 301. 



Lucknow printing, 306, 324; its S. S. literature, 
92. 

Ludhiana occupied, 98. 

Ludhiana Mission : name, whence derived, 131 ; 
its Semi-Centennial, 98; its industrial work, 
324, its liberality, 331 ; its policy regarding na- 
tives, 346; its printing press, 306. See Amer- 
ican Presbyterian Mission. 

Luh : described, 41 ; referred to, 372. 

Lushai uprisings, 22. 

Luther : used as an illustration, 175 ; his Bible, 
302. 

Lutheran Missions, 97, 384, 385. 

Lyall, Sir James : character as Lieut. -Governor, 
34- 

Lyric poetry of India, 304. 

Lytle, Rev D. S. ; his relation to the Persian 
Punjabi N. T., 302 ; work on the Psalms, 304; 
experience with an enquirer, 203 ; building 
work, 144. 

Lytton, Lord : character and viceroyalty, 31 ; 
abolishes the law of the Sabbath, 38. 

McCahon, Miss E. L. : founds the Girls' Board- 
ing School, 284; had charge, 286 ; her Short 
Catechism, 306 ; her work in the Institute, 
282. 

McCheyne: his habits of devotion, 369. 

McCullough, Miss R. A. : her testimony regard- 
ing Badoki, 254; alluded to, 258. 

McDowell's Compend of Theology, translated, 

3°7- 

McKee, Rev. J. P., D.D. : Sup't Gujranwala 
High School. 172 ; Sup't C. T. Institute, 282; 
Prof, in the Theological Seminary, 289 ; testi- 
mony about the higher education of Chris- 
tians, 296 ; experience with an enquirer, 203; 
departure from India, 289. 

McKee, Mrs. J. P. : work in the Institute, 282. 

McLeod Ganj at Dharmsala, 51. 

Madagascar : its fine missions, with statistics, 
311 ; their dependence on foreign aid, 311, 313. 

Madhopur : Ravi river at, 105. 

Madras City : a possible port for missionaries, 
17; route via, 10. 

Madras Presidency: powers of its governor, 28 ; 
his salary, 30 ; its civil service, 29 ; increase of 
Christians there, 351, 384, 385; education in, 
121, 122, 169; Bible distribution there, 301; 
statistics of its missions, 384, 385. 

Madras University, 163, 164. 

Madura: Bible distribution there, 301. 

Magic Lantern : its use in missions, 156. 

Mahabharat mentions Jhelum, 103. 

Mahadeva : on the hills, in. 

Mahalla: defined, 159; preaching, 158, 159, 

Mahars, a low caste, 245. 

Mahavira, a Jain saint, 113. 

Mahdi : excitement about, 22. 

Mahratta self-sustaining churches, 311. 

Mails : foreign and domestic, 63 ; used in mission 
work, 273 ; mails for a camp in itineration, 190. 
See Postal Service . 

Makhsan-i-Mosihi : a help in mission work, 92 ; 
quoted, 215. 

Malabar Hill, Bombay, visited, 15. 

Malaysian M. E. Missions, with statistics, 241. 

Malta : passed on the way to India, 13. 

Manipur rebellion, 22. 

Manu: his caste rules, 354. 

Manual of Foreign Board and Mission, 131, 132. 

Map : of The Heart of the Punjab and the U. P. 
Mission, opposite title page; of routes to 
India, 10; of India Missions, 97. 

Marali ; beginning of mission work there, 242. 

Marathi tongue, a branch of the Sanskrit, 85. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



401 



Marriage : eight kinds among Hindus, 125 ; with- 
in caste lines, 224; associated with religions 
rites, 112; among Moslems, 125; nuptial din- 
ners, 66 ; marriage processions, 187 ; early 
marriage interferes with education, 287 ; mar- 
riage reform, 355 ; marriage or celibacy among 
missionaries, 212. See Divorce. 

Married lady missionaries : their work and in- 
fluence, 150, 177, 192, 282, &c. 

Marseilles: a port used in going to India, 9. 

Martin, Miss Dora : her visit to India, 65. 

Martin, Rev. J. H. : his sister's visit, 65. 

Martin, Rev. S., D. D. : Prof, in Theo. Semi- 
nary, 289 ; chairman of the Psalm Committee, 
303; translates " Brief Evidences," 185; also 
Brown's "Explication," 307; his catechism, 
306; quoted on drawbacks to higher education, 

2 95- . . . 

Martin, Mrs. S : quoted on annoyances in itin- 
erating, 192 ; and on the open door among 
Chuhras, 246, 247. 

Martyn, Rev. Henry : his translation of the New 
Testament, 300; reference to his life, 301. 

Martyrs in India : now rare, but a few, 236. 

Mary Anna's portrait, 177. 

Masadi, our agent at Dharmsala, 50. 

Mas/ids, or mosqu-s, described, 116. 

Matthew 28 : 18-20 : quoted, 374 ; its teaching on 
baptism, 262. 

Maturity of mission churches : its rarity, 311, 
312; discussed, Chapters XXVI, XXVII and 
XXVIII — see Contents. See also under 
Church and Ecclesiastical. 

Maulu, of Chimma, persecutes Rura, 236. 

Maulvi : defined, 117; sometimes rabid, 152; 
his wordly wants, 319. 

Mausoleum of Ranjit Singh's father at Gujran- 
wala, 104. 

Maxwell, Mrs. E. B. ; her writing, 367. 

Mazhabi Sikhs : described, 113, 246. 

Meals of missionaries described, 57, 58. 

Meats of the Punjab, 57 ; also imported, 57. 
See under Game. 

Mediaeval Missions : different from modern, 243. 

Medical classes : utilized in training Christian 
girls, 294; allusion, 278. 

Medical Missionary Record: statistics from, 
quoted, 179. 

Medical Missionary work : of missionaries gen- 
erally, 145, 179; of medical missionaries par- 
ticularly, 145, 146; of native helpers, 146; its 
methods, 179-183; sustained by fees, 181; by 
grants-in-aid, 181 ; by subscriptions, 181 ; aided 
indirectly by the Lady DufFerin Scheme, 72 ; 
arguments in favor of it, 180, 181 ; a good 
pioneer agency, 181 ; supported by Christ's ex- 
ample, 181 ; objections to it, 180, 181 ; secular, 
in it, 145, 146; difficulties, 229; medical work 
in the Sialkot Mission, 181-183 ; statistics, 179, 
181, 182 ; spiritual results, 182, 183. 

Medical Science in India : its history, 47, 48. 

Mediterranean Sea : traversed by India mission- 
aries, 10, 13, 17. 

Meerut : route via, 16. 

Megasthenes speaks of the Indus, 103. 

Megs (weavers), a low caste, 117; Christian 
movement among, at Zafarwal, 242, 325 ; 
Piyara, a Meg, 233 ; Cheddu, a Meg, 234 ; allu- 
sion, 220. 

Mela, defined, 160. 

Mela preaching : described, 160, 161 ; its value, 
160, 161 ; co-operation in, 90. 

Melas, Christian: described, 274; their value, 
274 ; an example, 274. 

Melas : Hindu, of U. P. field, 160 ; one at Hard- 
war, ills., 159 ; alluded to, 161, 174. 

26 



Memorial Hospital, Sialkot. See Women's 
Memorial Hospital. 

Memorial of missionaries to the General As- 
sembly, 69. 

Memorial of native ministers to the General As- 
sembly : its character and purport, 344, 347, 
348 ; its results, 138, 347. 

Mem-sahiba ; defined, 150; her work, 150, 177, 
192, 282, &c. 

Merchants of the Punjab, Parsees, 115. 

Merve : taken, 23 ; railway to, 19. 

Messageries Line of Steamers, n. 

Messenger, quoted on declining Hinduism, 355. 

Meter: the kind used in India version of the 
Psalms, 303 ; Oriental and Occidental, com- 
pared, 304. 

Methodist Camp Meeting referred to, 274. 

M. E. Church : its scheme of study for ministers, 
297, 298. 

M. E. Church in India: its fields, 97; in the 
Punjab, 99; its liberality, 332; the power it 
gives ratives, 346, 347 ; its progress and 
statistics, 241 ; baptism at melas, 161 ; its 
printing at Lucknow, 306, 308, 324: its S. S. 
literature, 92 ; its newspapers, 92; salary of its 
missionaries, 62. 

Methodist (Free) Mission. 97. 

Methodist Times: on Dr. Duff's educational 
policy, 162 ; on the influence of a missionary 
home, 216. 

Methodists, Wesleyan : their fields in India, 97; 
salary of the missionaries, 62 ; their chaplains, 
36. 

Methodists of all k-nds in India: statistics, 384, 
385 ; their testimony bearing, 197. 

Methods of Evangelization. See Evangelistic 
Work. 

Mexico : Bible distribution there, 301. 

Miani : description of a house there, 176. 

Michaelovsk : founded, 23: railway to, 19. 

Middle School Grade, or Department : defined, 

292, 342, 317, 339; standard for the lower 
grade of U. P. ministry, 339, 342 ; number 
passed in our field, 294 ; till lately the highest 
grade of the C. T. Institute, 297 ; no provision 
till recently for the training of Christians 
higher than this in U. P. Mission, 296. 

Mihtar : a sweeper of the Chuhra caste, 60. 
Mildmay Park Association of Female Workers, 

90. 
Military of India. See Army. 
Military Service for native Christians discussed, 

3 2 5, 3 26 - 

Ministers, Native, in India generally : number 
and increase, 351, 352, 384, 385 ; called pad- 
ries, 233 ; an important force in converting 
India, 87, 358 ; their special work at present, 
196, 271, 272, 317; their thorough education 
desirable, 292, 293, 317, 331; should know the 
original languages of Scripture, 290-292 ; 
qualifications for ordination, 339 ; should be 
educated by each Mission for its own work, 
278 ; their salaries regulated by supply and de- 
mand, 317, 318; combination to force down 
their salary improper, 319 ; a just standard of 
salary, 323; their present style of living, 205, 
319 ; their social customs, 66 ; their inter- 
course with missionaries, 66, 67 ; charges and 
countercharges, 297, 342-344. See also next 
subject. . 

Ministers, Native, of the U. P. Mrssion : their 
two grades, lower and evangelistic, 297, 339 ; 
not many of the latter needed, 339, but some, 
297 ; standard of the former, 292, 342 ; of the 
latter 317 ; a good education desirable, 292, 

293, 317, 331 ; should know Greek and Hebrew, 



402 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Ministers, Native, of U. P. Mission — Continued. 
290-292; provision for their theological training, 
288-293 ; training through church courts, 298- 
300 ; their fewness, 338, 339 ; causes of the 
paucity, 339, 340; their salaries, 315, 316; 
style of living, 65, 66,205, 3 X 9; social customs, 
66 ; intercourse with missionaries, 66, 67 ; 
special work, 196, 271, 272, 317; relation to 
missionaries, 67, 138, 139 ; complaints against 
missionaries and vice versa, 297, 342-344 ; gen- 
eral qualifications, 340-342 ; should have more 
power and independence, 340-349. See also 
last subject. 

Miracles of Christ: their object, 181. 

Mirages, seen in itinerating, 187. 

Mirza Gulam Ahmed : debate with, 199, 201. 

Mirzapur : publications at, 308 ; its Bible a 
standard, 300. 

Mission Churches. See Church in Mission 
Lands. 

Mission Districts of U. P. field : named, 386 ; 
defined, Map, opp. title page ; statistics, 241, 
386 ; progress in, 341, 342 ; arrangements for, 
270, 278. 

Mission Life : its character and effect on mission- 
aries. See Missionaries. 

Mission Policy. See under Policy. 

Mission, U. P. See United Presbyterian Mis- 
sion. 

Mission work : its drain on the nervous system, 
363 ; its stages, 148, 149, 261 ; its methods, 
See under Evangelistic Work, Training, 
&c. ; see also Missions, Foreign. 

Missionaries to India : the stimulus received from 
their call, 374 ; qualifications desired, 376-380 ; 
training needed, 299 ; truly apostles, 374, 375 ; 
journey to India, Chapter I — see Contents; 
travel by steamer, 11 ; by rail, n, 12 ; number 
ordained in India, and their increase, 95, 351, 
352, 384, 385 ; proportion to the field, 95 ; their 
nationality, 385 ; number in U. P. field, 
386 ; not generally independent, 129 ; their 
training in the Mission, 136; acquiring foreign 
tongues, 86-88, 140; study of the people, 141; 
their salary, 61-63, 215, 216; some honorary, 
212 ; modes of living, 205 ; domestic conditions, 
Chapter VI — see Contents ; houses and furni- 
ture, 55, 56; dress, 56, 57, table and food, 58 ; 
sometimes get game, 190; modes of travel, 
Chapter VIII — see Contents; relation to the 
government, 36, 37; fears from without, 25. 27, 
35 ; liability to disease, Chapter V — see Con- 
tents, also 364; sacrifices and burdens, 58-61, 
192, 193, 212 ; recreations, 48-54, 63-65 ; inter- 
course with officials, 57, 63, 64; with travelers, 
64, 65; with native Christians, 66, 67; with 
fellow missionaries, 137, 376; shrink from 
fashionable society, 57 ; under the Mission, 
134; but have much freedom, 137, 138; their 
secular work, Chapter XIV, 372, 373 ; their re- 
lation to evangelism, 196; to work among 
Christians, 196, 272, 273 ; educationalists, 165 ; 
encouragements and supports, 374-378; dis- 
couragements, 373; conflicts, 373; authority 
over natives, 66, 67, 138, 139 ; co-operation 
with them, 299 ; sahibs, 341 ; relation to church 
courts, 130, 299 ; complaints against native 
workers and vice versa, 297, 342-344 ; cannot 
often tell their own converts, 153, 154; their 
studies, English, eloquence and intellectual 
growth, 365-367 ; their attachment' to home and 
the foreign land, 367, 368 ; their mistakes, 
weakness and imperfection, 220, 275, 299; 
temper affected by climate, 368, 369 ; obstruc- 
tions to their growth in grace, 368-374 ; helps 
to their spiritual advancement, 374-378 5 their 



Missionaries to India — Continued. 

fraternal feeling, 376; unworldliness, 377; 
liberality, 377; piety summed up, 378; differ- 
ence between them and home ministers, 370, 
373 ; how viewed by outsiders in India, 237, 
238 ; their need of vacations and furloughs, 
48-54, 371, 372: love to return to their field, 
378; comparative mortality, 48, 50, 362-365, 
385; length of service, 364, 365, 385; their re- 
tirement, 62, 63, 368; their children's Homes, 
61. 

Missionary spirit : its history and propagation, 
380, 381. 

Missions : their high aim, 148 ; the great work of 
the church, 380-382. 

Missions, Foreign : their necessity and aim, 148, 
363 ; their importance, 374, 375 ; what tasks 
they undertake, 148, 149, 261 ; their organized 
methods, Chapter X11I : their complicated 
and sometimes autocratic machinery, 273 ; 
their reflex influence, Chapter XXX — see 
Contents; their effect on Home Missions and 
vice versa, 380-382 ; evils of encroachment on 
one another's field, 89, 220, 358. See Mis- 
sions in India, &c. 

Missions,' Home: their relation to foreign mis- 
sions, 380-382. 

Missions, in India : their necessity, 128 ; their 
history, 94-97; have separate fields, 95-97 ; 
map, 97; sometimes clash, 89,220, 358; their 
methods of evangelism, Chapters XV — XX 
— see Contents ; of training Christians, Chap- 
ters XXIII — XXV — see Contents; their pro- 
gress, 238-248, 351, 352, 384. 385 ; how viewed 
by outsiders, 237, 238 ; converts mostly from 
the depressed classes, 243, 245 ; compared with 
missions of the Ancient and Mediaeval church, 
243 ; compared with Roman Catholic, 214,215; 
their social and political influence, 37, 237, 
238 ; dangers confronting them, 356-358 ; their 
policy, see Policy; their outlook, see Out- 
look; for particular Missions, see elsewhere. 

Missions, Punjab : 97-103, 241, 351, 384, 385, also 
map opposite title page. 

Miss-Sahiba. or unmarried lady, 177. 

Mistari, a skilled artisan. 280. 

Mithi zuban (a sweet tongue), applied to the 
Punjabi, 86. 

Mochies (shoemakers'), a low caste, 117. 

Model School, in C. T. I. ; 282. 

Moffit's Church History, in Urdu, 307. 

Mohammerah, or Euphrates route, 18. 

Mohanwala farmers threaten Christians, 236. 

Monasticism, condemned by its history, 210. 

Money, as a basis of church authority, 348. 

Money-lender's oppression, 37. 38, 84, 127. See 
under Banya. 

Mongol invasion of India, 27. See also Mughal. 

Mongolians in India, 107. 

Monkeys : at Dharmsala, 52 ; ills., 85, 141. 

Monsoons, 15, 40. 

Monthly meetings of workers, described, 273, 298. 

Moody : classed as a fakir, 206. 

Morals : of outcastes, 248 ; of Indian people gen- 
erally, 123-128 ; of fakirs, 205 ; of native Chris- 
tians, 252. 253; of native ministry, 340; of 
Anglo-Indians, 123-125; public morals, 33, 38, 
39, 218, 219; good morals an aid to evangelism, 
196, 197. 

Moravian Missions in India, 97 ; in the Punjab, 
99. 

Morgan, Miss : at Bhera, 182. 

Morrison, J. H., D. D. : founds the Mission at 
Rawal Pindi, 102. 

Morrison, Rev. Robert : son of former, at same 
place a 102. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



403 



Morrison, Robert, D. D. : his experience in 
China, 215. 

Mortality: great in India, 44, its causes, 44; in 
Punjab, 44-50; of foreigners compared with 
natives, 44-50 ; of missionaries, 48, 50, 362-365, 
385- 

Moses, Wells of: seen, 14. 

Moslems : See Muhammadans. 

Moths, in wardrobes, 58. 

Moti, mentioned, 233. 

Mounds of extinct cities, 105. 

Mountain family, ills., 52. 

Mountaineers in action, ills., 26. 

Mountains : of Jhelum, 40, 105 ; of Dharmsala, 
51, 52; of Kashmir, 53; of the Punjab gener- 
ally, 98 ; ills., 49, 50, 52, 100, 283. 

Mughal dynasty, 115, 116; its connection with 
U. P. field, 104. 

Muhammad, as viewed by Moslems, 115; a 
polygamist. 125 ; his red beard, 120. 

Muhammad Ghori : at Sialkot, 104. 

Muhammad Husain and his relatives, 236. 

Muhammadan : architecture in India, 116; 
ills., 329 ; doctors, or hakims, 47, 48 ; fakirs, 
204,209; farmers, 243 ; fasts and feasts, 116, 
117, 266; inquirers, 203 ; invasions of the Pun- 
jab, 27, 103; ladies, 177, see Begums; revolt 
against mission work in Jhelum, 229 ; rule in 
India, 115, 116; towns, 109 ; zenanas, 176, 229. 
See Muhammadanism and Muhammadans. 

Muhammadanism: in India, 115-118, 122 ; among 
the low castes. 118; influenced by Hinduism, 
116, 123, 356, 357 ; proselytes to and from, 352, 
353 ; converts from, 231, 235, 236, 244 ; such 
converts helpless, 275. See Muhammadan 
and Muhammadans. 

Muhammadans: described, 115-118 ; their num- 
ber, no, 115, 116; number increasing, 352; 
quarter in towns, 159; clothing, no, 120, 121 ; 
names, 121; favorite tongue, 85, 86; political 
opposition to the Sikhs, 112, 113; education, 
121, 122 ; teachers in our schools, 286 ; sects, 

121 ; caste, 116 ; in Civil Service, 325 ; histor- 
ical traces in our field, 104 ; habits and rules in 
prayer, 116, 150, 151,265, ills., 117; ablutions, 

122 ; temperance, 122 ; abstinence from usury, 
123; liberality, 321, 322 ; morals, 68, 122-128; 
view of women, 68, 125, 126; fanaticism, 246; 
persecuting spirit, 126, 225, 226, 231, 235 ; ex- 
cited by rise of the Mahdi,22; controversial 
character, 157, 158, 199, 201, 227; don't mix 
with Hindus, 228 ; hate them, 117 ; opposition 
to Christianity, 225, 226, 231-233, 235; contro- 
versy at Amritsar, 199, 201 ; in bazar preach- 
ing, 157, 158 ; found in our village schools, 195, 
267; and at dispensaries, 181; no remarkable 
work among, 245 ; clannish, 326 ; allusions, 
113, 170, 231, 247, 381. See also the two pre- 
ceding topics and Islam. 

Muharram, a great Moslem holiday and month, 
1T7. 

Mukarji, Miss : her girls' schools, 172. 

Multan : occupied by the C. M. S., 98. 

Municipal Committees, 29 ; help medical work, 
73,i8i. 

Murder. See Crime. 

Murray, Rev. D. A. : visits India, 65. 

Murray, Mrs. : her testimony about Ameera, 
258. 

Murree : described, 52, 54, 75; in U. P. field, 
102 ; cholera at, 46, 54 ; ills., 56. 

Musallies of Jhelum, 246. 

Music : an attraction in mission work, 156 ; tal- 
ent of Indian people for, 108. 

Music, Oriental : described, 304, 305 ; ills., 200, 
305. See Bhajans. 



Mussoorie : described, 52, 53, 54. 
Mutiny : in U. P. field, 105. 

Nanak. See Baba Nanak. 

Nanak's marriage, 258. 

Nanga Parbat, a peak in Kashmir, 53. 

Naples, on route to India, n. 

Narowal Mission : boundary settled, ioi, 102. 

Nastaliq, running-hand, 268 

Native Christians. See under Converts and 
Christians. 

Native Church. See Church in India. 

Native employees and helpers. See Workers, 
Native. 

Native ministers. See Ministry, Native. 

Native modes of living. See Living. 

Native States : of India, 28 ; of the Punjab, 98. 

Natives of India : described, Chapter XII — see 
Contents ; houses and towns, 108, 109, 263 ; 
race and physical traits, 107 ; peculiar talents, 
107, 108; wages and poverty, 109, no, 123, 
263 ; style of living, 109, 204, 205, 263; dress, 
109, no, 113, 120, 121, 263 ; food, 109 ; religion, 
109-128; proportion of different sects in India, 
and in the Punjab, no, 119-121 ; their good 
traits, 122, 123 ; religions, 151, 152 ; their bad 
traits, 123-128 ; what the Oude Akhbar says, 
123, 124 ; their illiteracy, 165 ; character to be 
studied by missionaries, 141 : illustrations on 
many pages. See also Orientals, Hindus, 
Muhammadans. &c. 

Natural religion: danger from, 356. 

Naya Pind, near Zafarwal, 234. 

Necklaces, ills., 124. 

Neighbor missionaries : their unfavorable atti- 
tude and influence, 89. 219, 220 ; favorable, 89- 
93. See Chapter X — Contents. 

Neighbors, political : their effect on Missions, 
Chapter II — see Contents. 

Neolas in houses, 58 ; ills., 379. 

Nepal : home of the Gurkhas, 107. 

Nerves: how affected by sympathy, overwork 
and worry, 363, 364. 

Nests of birds, ills., 93, 261, 350. 

" New India " : what it aspires to, 358, 359 ; its 
view of Missions, 360. 

New Jersey : compared with the Punjab, 96. 

New Testament against asceticism, 209. 

New York City: a point of departure, 9, 10, 
12. 

New York State: compared with the Punjab, 
96 ; with the U. P. Mission, 103. 

Newmarch, Col. G. : helps in building the Insti- 
tute, 280. 

News from home much looked for, 63. 

Newspapers : used in Mission work, 92, 306. 

Newspapers, secular: received and read, 63, 
366. 

Newton, Rev. C. B., D. D., quoted on Gugga 
gana, 118, 119. 

Newton, Rev. John, D. D., his Punjabi version 
of the Bible, 302. 

Nicaea : place of Alexander's victory, 103. 

Nineteenth Century : its chief Ecclesiastical 
feature, 380. 

Nirvana : the Hindu's heaven, 126, 152. 

Normal Class in the Institute, 282. 

North India Conference : its liberality, 332. 

North India Tract Society's publications, 308. 

N. W. Provinces : Civil Service, 29 ; University, 
163, 164 ; mission progress, 351, 384, 385. 

N. W. Railway, 77. 

Northern State Railway, 76, 77. 

Nose rings, ills., 228. 

Nur Afshan : an aid to us, 92, 306 ; helped by 
us, 185. 



404 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Obstructions to mission work, Chapter XX — 
see Contents. See also under Drawbacks, 
Persecution and Hindrances. 

Occidental and Oriental Line of Steamers, 17. 

Occupation of a field : when sufficient, 222. See 
Comity. 

Ochotsk : reached by Russia, 23. 

Odessa, on the Black Sea, 20. 

Officers in a temple, ills., 141. 

Official News Correspondence, 136. 

Officials : of the Government, see British Rule ; 
of a village, 189, 190. 

Ohio : compared with the Punjab, 96 ; and the 
U. P. Mission, 103. 

Omsk, on Siberian R. R. , 20. 

On a lake in Kashmir, ills., 55. 

O'Neil's self-denial and the result, 215.. 

Opium-eating, an obstruction to Evangelism, 
222. 

Opium trade of India, 33, 38, 39. 

Orbison, Rev. J. H., of Rawal Pindi, 102. 

Ordained agents in India. See Ministers. 

Ordination : qualifications for, 339. See also 
Ministers. 

Orenberg : on Siberian railway, 20 ; founded, 
23- 

Organization for mission work, Chapter XIII; 
inter-mission, 90, 91. 

Organization of Churches. See under Church. 

Oriental Harbor, ills., 17. 

Oriental Houses, 176. See also Zenana and 
Houses. 

Oriental ways: attractive to missionaries, 378. 

Orientals : their etiquette, 264 ; their genius, 208 ; 
essentially religious, 151 ; not ashamed to talk 
on religion, 151, 152. See also Natives, Hin- 
dus, Muhammadans, &c. 

Original Secession Mission, 97. 

Orphanage of Scotch Mission, 279 ; of U. P. 
Mission, 284, 285. 

Oude : its Civil Service, 29 ; increase of Chris- 
tians there, 351 ; statistics, 384, 385. 

Oudh Akhbar : its view of natives and Anglo- 
Indians, 123-125. 

Out-caste people. See Castes, Lozu. 

Outlook : as to wealth, 332 ; as to numbers, 328; 
as to additions from high castes, 328 ; Chapter 
XXIX— see Contents; 359-361, 384, 385, 386. 

Overwork among missionaries : its necessity and 
results, 363, 369. 

Owls, ills., 173, 361. 

Ox;n ploughing, ills., 144. 

Oxford Brotherhood : their field, 97 ; their mode 
of living, 205 ; their failure, 215. 

Oxus river, or Amu Darya, 19. 

Pacific routes to India, 17, 20. 

Padri, common title of a minister in India, 233. 

Paejamas , or Pyjamas: described, no ; worn by 

different sects and sexes, no, 121 ; men's, ills., 

342 ; women's, 228, 342, &c. 
Pagri (turban) : described, 109 ; ills., 124, 342, 

Pakka (solid, ripe), 76. 

Palms : ills., 65, 74, 161, 238, 247. 

Palanquin: described, 80; travel by, 54 ; ills., 

135 ; allusion, 187. See also Doli and Khatola. 
Pamirs : contested, 23. 
Panchayat (local ruling committee) : derivation 

of the word, 271 ; described and discussed, 

271 ; takes the place of a Session, 334, 335 ; 

allusion, 278. 
Pankhas, or Punkhas : used by Anglo-Indians, 

55,78. 
Pantheism of India, in, 114. 
Pantheon, Hindu, in, 360. 



Parasnath, a Jain Saint, 113. 

Pardah, or Pardah-nashin (that is, veiled) 
women : provision for their medical treatment, 
179; an instance, 231 ; veil described, 121. 

Parliament : its relation to India, 28 ; overruled, 

33, 39- 

Parrot, ills., 88. 

Parsees : orginally Persians, 107 ; described, 
115; dress, 120; growing slowly in numbers, 
352; ills., 115, 341. 

Pashtu tongue : spoken by Afghans, 86. 

Paspas : described, 58. 

Pasrur town : described, 182 ; dispensary there, 
182 ; mela near it, 160 ; in Mughal days, 104. 

Pasrur Civil District : inquirer from, 203 ; ex- 
orcist of, 251 ; a Christian woman's devotion, 
252. 

Pasrur Mission District : Christians there, 241 ; 
progress of the gospel in, 386. 

Pastors ; as evangelists, 195 ; relations to local 
mission agencies, 271. 

Pathankot town : nearest station to Dharmsala, 
50; its doli and tonga service, 54; its roads, 
75 ; its railway, 76 ; its bookshop, 157, 184. 

Pathankot Mission District: progress of the 
gospel there, 241, 386. 

Pathans : described, 107; contrasted with Hin- 
dus, 123 ; ills., 26. 

Patiala : a native state, occupied by the R. P. 
Mission, 99. 

Patriarchal style of living : adopted by the na- 
tives of India generally, 123; impossible for 
Christian ministers, 319 ; its advantages, 123. 

Patriotic feeling : of natives, a power, 359 ; of 
missionaries, not quenched, 367. 

Patronage necessary to financial support, 327. 

Patton, J. G., D. D. : his interesting style, 366. \ 

Pattu clothing : described, 56. 

Paul : place of his shipwreck, 13 ; an inspired 
missionary, 375 ; his mode of life, 206 ; his 
preaching in the school of Tyrannus, 167. 

Paul Kiwal Singh's portrait, 342. 

Peirce, Miss Mary H., her visit to India, 64. 

Peninsular and Oriental (P. & O.) Line of 
Steamers, 11. 

Penjdeh : incident there, 25. 

Pennsylvania: compared with the Punjab, 96; 
and U. P. Mission, 103; allusion, 17. 

Pensions : given to English officials, 29, 62 ; not 
to missionaries, 62, 63. 

People of the Punjab : Chapter XII. See Na- 
tives of India. 

Perim : on the road to India, 15. 

Perjury, common in India, 125. 

Perkins, Rev. H E. : once a Commissioner, 
196 ; his conversion of a lawyer, 196 ; his 
Bible revision work, 291. 

Persecution in India, especially in U. P. field : 
generally described, Chapter XXII— see Sylla- 
bus ; frequent, 251 ; by Hindus, 229, 233, 246, 
&c; by Moslems, 201,246; less among low 
castes, 246, but exhibited, nevertheless, 234 ; 
by women, 175,234; by British Rule, 34, 38, 
218; trickery employed, 236; instances, Chapter 
XX, passim. 239 ; fatal instances rare, 236 ; a 
hindrance to progress, 275. See also Hin- 
drances and Drawbacks. 

Persia : relation to Russia, 24 ; railways across, 
17, 20. 

Persian character in writing, 268, 270 ; why used 
in India, 270. 

Persian Gulf: railway to, 20. 

Persian tongue : popular in the East, 85 ; easy 
to learn, 88 ; studied by missionaries, 86. 

Persians : represented in India by Parsees, 107, 
115; their contests in the Punjab, 27. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



405 



Personal, private efforts of Christians : a great 
means of evangelism, 195, 196. 

Peshawar: terminus of the railway, 76; occu- 
pied by the C. M. S., 98. 

Pesth : on Constantinople route, 18. 

Peter: an inspired missionary, 375. 

Peter, Second, 1 : 5-7, quoted, 382. 

Peter the Great's ambition, 24. 

Petrovsk, on the Caspian Sea, 19, 20. 

Philadelphia, a sailing point, 9, 12. 

Phillips, Dr., his powers of oratory, 366. 

Philosophy of Hindus regarding the male and 
the female principles, 126. 

Phulkaries of Sialkot, or cloth ornamented with 
flower work, 106. 

Pice, one-fourth of an anna, 84. 

Pictures, an attraction in bazar work, 156. 

Piety of missionaries : circumstances favorable 
to its growth, 374-378 ; and the contrary, 368- 
374 ; summing up, 378. 

Piety of Native Christians discussed, Chapter 
XXII— see Syllabus. 

Pig-sticking in India, ills., 204. 

Pilau, described, 58. 

Pillars of Hercules passed. 13. 

Pind Dadan Khan, occupied by the C. M. S., 
100, 101 ; near thi Salt Mines, 76. 

Pindori : mela there, 160. 

Pipal tree : a good shade tree, 152 ; worshiped, 
112. 

Piran Ditta's baptism, 234. 

Pir Lakh Datta : mela in honor of, 160. 

Piyara's baptism, 233. 

Plains of the Punjab, 40, 98. 

Plates, brass, for eating from, ills., 288. 

Platter, Mary A., M.D., at Sialkot, 182. 

Ploughs, ills,, 144. 

Plutschau, Henry : reaches India, 94. 

Plymouth Brethren among the Anglo-Indians, 
64 ; in the Punjab, 99 ; their intrusion, 275, 
358. 

Poetry of India, Lyric : described, 304-306. 

Police of India : their number, 30 ; useful at 
times in mission difficulties, 127, 128, 132 ; at- 
titude towards bazar preaching, 154, 156, 157; 
picture of two, 235. 

Policy of India Missions: some questionable 
features, 138, 139, 219-223, 291, 292, 323, 356- 
358, &c. ; has it been wrong? 313,314; does 
it hinder liberality ? 319, 320 ; to be improved, 
330; hinders sometimes the growth of the 
native ministry, 340 ; regarding ministerial 
education, 291, 292. 

Politeness : a characteristic of the India people, 
122. 

Polyandry, legalized by Hinduism, 125. 

Polygamy, in India, 125 ; its relation to baptism, 
222, 223. 

Polytheism of India, hi, 114. 

Pomelos (shaddock), 57. 

Pompeii : shops of, 157. 

Poona : its Mahars, 245. 

Poor and despised first reached by the gospel, 
167 243-246, 355, 356, 357. 

Poor-houses : none in India, 123. 

Popery produces superstition, 169. See also Ro- 
man Catholics. 

Population of India : census, no; increase, 352 ; 
causes of increase, 44. See also Statistics. 

Porcupine, ills., 332. 

Port Ibrahim, at Suez, 14. 

Port Said, on the way to India, 13, 18, 

Porus fighting Alexander, 103. 

Post Office. See Postal Service. 

Postal Service of India : described, 82-84 ; mail 
carriers, 82 ; Postal Union, 82, 83 ; rates of 



Postal Service of India — Continued. 

postage, 83 ; curious features, 83 ; post-office 
saving banks, 84; of special use and pleasure 
to missionaries, 35, 63, 273. 

Postal Union. See Postal Service above. 

Poti, on northern route, 20. 

Poverty : of the natives of India, 109, no, 123, 
263 ; of Christian converts, 167, 243-246, 320— 
3 2 4, 33 1 , 355, 356, 357: 'ts remedies, 324-332; 
connection between poverty and mission suc- 
cess, 207,208, 243-246. See also Natives, Con- 
verts, Christians, &c. 

Praise, in worship of Indian U. P. Church, de- 
scribed, 265, 303; in bazar preaching, 156. 

Prakriti, in Hinduism, 126. 

Prayer : of Punjabi churches, described, 265, 
266; for missionaries, desired, 375, 376 ; omit- 
ted often in bazar preaching, 156, 157. 

Prayer Meetings : their good influence, 195. 

Prayers of Moslems: how observed, 116, 151; 
attitudes, ills., 117; ablutions before, 122. 

Preaching: in bazars and at melas, see Bazar, 
Mela and Mahal la ; at home, 150; to the 
heathen generally, 370; in Punjabi congrega- 
tions, 265 ; in a village, ills. , 194 ; in hospitals, 
179 ; in schools, 172; in zenanas, 177-179. 

Prema's persecution, 235. 

Pre-millenarianism : its effect on missions, 223. 

Preparation for missionary work. See Mission- 
aries and Training: 

Preparations for conversion, 149. 

Presbyterial system, or Presbyterianism : in U. 
P. Mission, 129-131 ; favorable to Christian 
melas, 274 ; inconsistent with autocratic 
methods, 138, 139, 273, or control by a Mis- 
sionary Association, 346, or general lack of 
local organizations, 333, 334; how to be made 
more popular, 346. 

Presbyterian Alliance. See Alliance. 

Presbyterian chaplains, 36. 

Presbyterian Mission, American. See Ameri- 
can Presbyterian J fission. 

Presbyterians in India : various societies and 
their fi-lds, 97 ; their comparative progress as 
a family, 384, 385 ; their superiority in educa- 
tional work, 165, 384 ; their effort to secure a 
union, 91, 92. See also under the different 
churches. 

Presbyteries of U. P. Church in India : their 
names and organization, 336 ; their constitution 
and powers, 130, 131 : allusions, 273, 274. See 
also Ecclesiastical Courts, Church, U. P., in 
India and Sialkot Presbytery 

Presidencies i 
and Bombay 

Press : of Sialkot (or U. P.) Mission, 185 ; of 
Ludhiana Mission, 306; at Lucknow, 308; at 
Secundra, 308 ; at Mirzapur, 300. 308. 

Primary Schools or departments in India ; two 
grades, Upper and Lower, 164; in U. P. Mis- 
sion villages, 267-270, 145, 170; in Central, 
270, 278; in Institute, 278, 281. 282. 284; in 
Girls' Boarding School, 288; in High Schools, 
see High Schools ; ills., 184, 228. 

Private Study : scheme of, for native workers, 
described, 298, 299. 

Probation, future : doctrine of. injurious to mis- 
sions, 223. 

Promises and grace of God : a great support in 
mission work, 370, 374. 

Prophet: one who was false, 201 ; Muhammad 
claimed to be, 115. 

Proselytism : among Missions, 275 ; evils of, 95, 
96, 275, 358 ; to and from Islam, 352, 353. 

Prostration in prayer : by Christians, 265 ; by 
MuhammadanSp ills., 117. 



idi.i 



3°- 



ee also Madras 



406 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Protestant Brotherhoods : in India, 205, 206 ; 
how they live, 205 ; not remarkably successful, 

Protestant Church. See Church. 

Protestant Missions in India : compared with 
Roman Catholics, 214, 215. See also Mis- 
sions in India. 

Protestantism: against fakirism, 210; of nine- 
teenth century, described, 380. 

Protestants of India. See Christians, Converts, 
and Missions in India. 

Proverbs n : 25 quoted, 377. 

Providential helps to work among the oppressed 
classes, 246-248. 

Pryor, General: conversion of his servants, 150. 

Psalm 126 : 6 quoted, 78. 

Psalms 19 and 22 : Punjabi bhajans, 200 and 305. 

Psalms : their translation into Urdu and western 
meter, 265, 303 ; translation into Punjabi and 
Oriental meter, or bhajans, 265, 304 ; use in 
church service, 265 ; in bazar preaching, 156; 
in zenana work, 177, 178; specimens, 200, 

3°5- 

Public morals, or wrongs, of India : 33, 38, 39, 
218, 219. 

Publication, U. P. Board of: its donation of 
books, 289. 

Publication Committee of Sialkot Presbytery : 
its history and work, 185, 336, 337. 

Publications, for missions, in India : 92, 93, 300- 
309 ; by U. P. Mission, 185, 302-308. 

Pulmonary disease in the Punjab, 46. 

Pundits, or Hindu learned men, 152, 319. 

Punjab Bible Society : its constitution, 90, 91 ; 
action regarding a revision of the Urdu Bible, 
291 ; assumes preparation of a Persian Punjab 
translation, 302. 

Punjab Literature : 86, 184, 265, 302, 304, 306, 
308, 309; specimens, 200, 305. 

Punjab Missionary conference of 1862-3 : one of 
its resolutions, 101. 

Punjab Province : described, 96-98 : its name 
defined, 96 : area, 96; plains, 40. 98 ; physical 
features, 98 ; its annexation by the British, 98, 
279 ; Civil Service, 29 ; officers, 30-34 ; Lieut. - 
Governors, 30-34 ; political divisions, 98; na- 
tive states, 98 ; population. 46, 96, 98 ; the 
people described, Chapter XI — see Contents ; 
its languages. Chapter IX; its educational 
system, 163-165 ; its missions, 97-103, 241, 351 ; 
statistics of its missions, 241, 384, 385 ; medical 
missionary statistics, 179; S. Schools, 385; 
journey to, described, 15, 16 ; a highway for 
invading forces, 27 ; to be studied by Punjab 
missionaries, 141 ; allusions, 11, 21, 321. See 
also Punjabies, &c. 

Punjab Religious Book Society ; its constitution, 
90, 91; publications, 308; sales, 309; deposi- 
tory in Lahore, 308. 

Punjab school system : 163-165. 

Punjab University : when established, 164 ; its 
examination, 121. 

Punjabi tongue : derived from the Sanskrit, 85 ; 
in Gurmukhi character, 86, 302 ; in Persian 
character, 265 ; in Roman, 200 ; commonly 
used, 86 ; dear to the people, 85, 304 ; study of 
it not encouraged by the government except 
in za)nindari schools, 268; learned and used 
by Punjab missionaries, 86; translations of the 
Bible into, 265, 302 ; literature in, see Punjabi 
Literature ; allusions, 87, 88, 370. 

Punjabies, or the Punjab people : to be studied 
by missionaries, 141 ; general description, 
Chapter XII — see Syllabus. See Natives and 
Orientals — also Hindus, Muhammadans , &c. 

Punkhas, or Punkahs : their use, 58, 78, 



Purdah. See Pardah. 

Purity Mission. 97. 

Purohits, Hindu family priests, 321. 

Purusha : in Hindu philosophy, 126. 

Qila Suba Singh in Pasrur tahsil, 235. 

Quack doctors in India, 47, 48. 

Qualifications for missionary work, 299, 378-380. 

Quarter Centennial Fund, or Q. C. Fund : de- 
fined, 71 ; help received from, 71; contribu- 
tions to, in India, 315. 

Queen of England: a hindrance to Russia, 24; 
mentioned, 301. 

Queenstown, in view, 12. 

Quetta, on northern route, 20. 

Quinton's assassination, 22. 

Rahim Bakhsh's growth in grace, 255. 

Rahmat Masih translates gospels into Persian 
Punjabi, 302. 

Railways in Europe, n, 12, 13. 

Railways in India: their history, 76; accom- 
modations, 77, 78; stations, 78; fares, 77; 
compared with European and American, 15, 
J 6, 78; government connection with, 35, 76; 
ills., 238. 

Rains : damage done by, 42. 

Rainy season : described, 40-43 ; its effects on 
the temper, 368, 369 ; unfavorable for itinera- 
tion, 1&6, 193. 

Rajah : his mode of living, 204 ; will salute a 
takir, 206. 

Rajput dynasties of the Punjab, 98. 

Rajputs : not many become Christians, 245. 

Ramazan fast, 117. 

Ram Chandra Bose : quoted on fakirism, 213. 

Ram Das, a Sikh^-«r«, 112. 

Ramnagar : connection with the Sikhs, 104, 105; 
and the Muhammadans, 104 ; baptism at, 234. 

Ranjit Singh : the great Punjab ruler, 113; born 
at Gujranwala, 104; some of his ashes there, 
104. 

Rasulnagar : now Ramnagar, 104. See Ram- 
nagar. 

Ravi : one of the " five rivers," 98 ; same as the 
Hydraotes, 103 ; picturesque at Madhopur, 
105 ; connection with the mutiny, 105 ; Chris- 
tian movement near it, 161 ; crossed by a 
ferry, 75, 76. 

Rawal Pindi Cantonment : the largest British 
garrison in the world, 31, 105. 

Rawal Pindi City : described, 102 ; formerly a 
capital called Gajipur, 103; snow at, 40; 
cholera at, 46 ; road from, to Murree, 75; con- 
nection with British Rule, 31, 105 ; great dur- 
bar, 105; its girls' schools, ills., 228; high 
school, 172: ills . , T.-JT. ; college, 172, 173,297; 
ills., 171 ; church, 102, ills., 345; allusion, 84. 

Rawal Pindi District: described, 102; occu- 
pied by Am. Presbyterians, 98, 102 ; trans- 
ferred to U. P. Mission, 102; allusion, 242. 

Raya tahsil : its mission history, 105. 

Reading rooms. See Book-shops. 

Real Estate : hard to get in India, 143, 225, 226 ; 
cases cited, 225-227 ; manner of purchasing, 
143, 272, 273 ; haqq i-shu/a, 143, 225. 

Recreations of missionaries, 63-66, 137. 

Red Sea: journey through, 14. 15 ; allusion, 22. 

Reflex influence of missions : presented. Chapter 
XXX — see Contents; on missionaries, 362-380; 
on the Home Church. 208, 380-382. 

Reformed (Dutch) Mission. 97. 

Reformed Presbyterian Mission in the Punjab, 

97* 99- 
Reforms: in higher school work suggested. 170; 
in mission policy advocated, Chapters XXVI- 



TOPICAL INDEX 



40? 



Reforms — Continued. 
XXVIII — see Contents; in Hinduism, 112-115, 

Registry of births and deaths, 46. 

Relics in the Punjab, 105. 

Religions, false : contain some truth, 199 ; their 
truths 10 be utilized in mission work, 199 ; no 
compromise with, allowable, 356. 

Religions of India and especially the Punjab : 
described, 110-122. See also Hindus, Muham- 
madans, &c. 

Religious Book Societies of India : their work, 
92, 308. 309 ; of Punjab, 308, 309. See also 
Bible Societies and Press. 

Remedies : of the poverty of the native church, 
324-332 ; of her immaturity, Chapter XXVIII 
— see Contents. 

Repairs of houses, 144. 

Reports : of workers, monthly, 273, 298 ; of mis- 
sionaries, yearly, 136, 137. 

Republican institutions: to whom adapted. 368. 

Residents, of Indian Government, in Native 
States, 28. 

Rest houses: government for travelers, 81, 82, 
192; mission, for Christian laborers, 19^, 264. 

Results: of evangelism, Chapters XXI, XXII— 
see Contents — also, 350, 351-356, 384, 385, 386; 
of the lower training of Christians, 276; of 
higher training, 294, 295, 350, and passim. 

Revivals : few in India, 369 ; not the gateway of 
conversion at present, 249, 250. 

Rewards : desired sometimes by converts, 201- 
203; not promised by missionaries, 201, 202; 
expected by missionaries, 377, 378. 

Rewari, on the road to the Punjab, 16. 

Rice fields of Kangra, 51. 

Rig Veda: mentions the Punjab rivers, 103. 

Ripon, Lord : his character and viceroyalty, 31, 
32- 

Risalu, the Punjab hero, 103. 

Rituals : not suitable for evangelism, 198, 215. 

Roads in India : described, 74-76 ; metaled 
(kankar), 74, 75 ; on the way to hill stations, 
75; mud, or common earth, 75, 76; village 
paths, 76, 186, 187; travel on, described, 186, 
187. See Railways. 

Roberts, Sir Frederick: Commander-in-chief, 30. 

Robson, Dr. : his opinion of native converts, 
249. 

Roman Catholic: superstition, 169; friars or 
fakirs, 206; chaplains in India, 36; mission- 
aries, how they live, 205, 210, 211. See Ro- 
man Catholics. 

Roman Catholics : their formalism, 198 ; their in- 
trusion and opposition, 220,228, 275 ; how they 
sometimes proselyte, 353 ; their agricultural 
settlement, 325 ; their comparative success 
in missions, 198, 215 ; inter-mission committee 
against, 90; allusions, 119, 122. See Roman 
Cat /to lie. 

Roman character in Urdu : described and dis- 
cussed, 268-270 ; easy to learn, 267, 270 ; ad- 
vocated by missionaries, 270; its literature 
pure, 270 ; specimens named and enumerated, 
3°3> 3°7> 3°8, 309 ; Roman Punjabi specimens, 
200, 305. 

Roman Empire: its conversion compared with 
that of India, 360. 

Romanath Chowdry, quoted, 10=,. 

Romans 1 : 21-32 : a picture of Indian society, 
125. 

Rookwood, a bungalow on Dharmkot, 50. 

Rotas ruins, 105. 

Routes to India : Chapter I ; ordinary, 9-16 ; 
western, 17; Arabian, 17; Euphrates, 17, 18; 
Transcaspian, 18-20 ; Siberian, 20 ; Map of, 10. 



Rubettino Line of Steamers, 11. 

Rules of Parliamentary and Ecclesiastical Order 
in Urdu, 308. 

Rupee : changes of value during 14 years, 73. 
See Anna. 

Rura of Chimma: his persecution, 235,236; his, 
and his wife's portrait, 342. 

Russia: her aggressive policy, 18, 19, 23-25; 
progress in Asia, 23-25 ; designs upon India, 
2 3 -2 7 ; guards against, by British Govern- 
ment, 25-27; perseverance, 23, 24; good re- 
sults of her progress, 24 ; jealousy of Great 
Britain and China, 24, 25; fears of invading 
India, 25, 27 ; effect on missionaries, 25-27 ; 
rights in Corea, 23. 

Ruth's baptism and persecution, 231, 232, her 
marriage to Barkat Masih, 232. 

Sabbath: Indian law for, abolished, 38; a holi- 
day with Hindus and Moslems, 228 ; not well 
established among village Christians, 275 ; no 
true Sabbath among the heathen, 275, 370,371 ; 
how kept by Aryans, 114. 

S. S. Convention at Lahore, 90. 

S. S. gifts for Rawal Pindi, 71. 

S. S. International Series of Lessons, 92, 267. 

S. S. Journal : a help, 92. 

S. S. Union of India, 90, 267 ; Auxiliary Punjab 
Branch formed at Lahore, 90, 267. 

S. Schools: of U P. field, described, 266, 267; 
contain Christians and non-Christians, 189, 
267; a means of Evangelism, 195; statistics 
for India according 10 Provinces and Ecclesias- 
tical families, ^85 ; statistics for the Punjab, 
266, 385 ; for U. P. field, 266, 386. 

Sabzkot : school and church building, 226. 

Sacraments: how administered in India, 266. 

Sacred books , reverence of Indian people for, 
156; of Hindus, 35, 103, 114, 115, 355; of 
Sikhs, 112: of Aryans, 114; of Muhamma- 
dans, 115. 117, 122, 123. 

Sacred Cattle : reverenced by Hindus, 112,126, 
and Sikhs, 112 ; ills., 129. 

Sacrifices: of Hindus, in; human, almost 
completely suppressed by the Government, 35, 
127, but occasionally reported, 354. 

Sacrifices : of missionaries, 48, 49, 58-61, 212, 
362-365, 368-374; of native laborers, 213; of 
native Christians, 251. See also Missionaries, 
Ministers, Workers and Persecution. 

Sadowal : a service there, 232; its improvement, 

254- 
Sadr, or chief, bazar, 154. 
Sahib: defined, 372 ; applied to missionaries, 

150, 151, 186, 372 ; how a sahib travels, 82, 186; 

ladies called Sahzbas, 150, 177, 186. 
Said : on the road to India, 13. 
St. James' Hall : its methods, 167. 
St. Paul's Bay, in sight, 13. 
St. Stephen's Review, on Anglo-Indian morals, 

124. 
Saints : reverenced by Moslems, 116 ; by Jains, 

Saivas. or worshipers of Siva (Shiva) : their dis- 
tinctive tika, 120 

Sakti principle worshiped, 125. 

Salary : of Anglo-Indian officials, 30, 62 ; of 
Government chaplains, 62 ; of missionaries, 61- 
63, 205 : of nat ; ve ministers, 65, 66, 315-319 ; 
of Christian teachers, 316 ; not desirable to re- 
duce missionaries' salary, 212, 215, 216, 377. 

Salt: comes from Jhelum, 57, 105; mines near 
Pind Dadan Khan, of that District, 76. 

Salt Range of Jhelum, 40, 57. 

Salvation: what is it? 148, 149; means of, 149, 
150. 



408 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Salvation Army : its fields, 97 ; its intrusive ten- ] 
dencies, 358; its methods, 167; persecuted, 
38 ; how its members live, 205, 216 ; whence it 
draws its converts, 245. 

Samarkand: captured, 23 ; reached by rail, 19. 

Sandwich Islands' Missions : their maturity, 311; 
independence of the churches, 312, 313 ; Train- 
ing School, 313 ; aid received from abroad, 
3*3- 

San Francisco, route via, 17. 

Sanitaria of India. See Health Resorts. 

Sanitary conditions of India missionaries. See 
Chapter V, also 362-365. 

Sans Mai : the mythical guru of the Sansies, 
118. 

Sansies : a low caste, 118 ; their traditional guru, 
118; religion, 118; by caste employment, 
thieves, 127. 

Sanskrit: tongue, a mother language, 85, and 
studied by missionaries, 86 ; texts, used in 
medical practice, 47 ; mottoes, in houses, 

Santals : conversions from, 245. 

Saraswati See Dayananda. 

Sarrakhs : on Transcaspian route, 20. 

Satan : busy in the heat, 368 : a foreign tongue, 
his ally, 370. 

Sati-Chaunra, or the Suttee Monument, ills., 65. 

" Saviour's Claim," translated, 185. 

Sayyids : at hospitals, 181 ; favored in getting 
government employment, 325, 326. 

Scales, ills., 124. 

Scavenger birds and animals, 263 ; ills., hyena, 
263. 

Schaff, Philip, D. D. : on monasticism, 210 ; his 
" Ante-Nicene Church" translated, 307. 

Scheme : Lady Dufferin's, for medical help, 72, 
179 ; mission, for instructing workers. See 
Private Study. 

Scholarships given students, 280, 339. 

Schools : as Evangelizing agencies, see Chap- 
ter XVI — Contents; help to undermine caste, 
267, 3^4 ; to train Christians, 264, 267-270, 278; 
U. P. enumerated, 267, 278 ; U. P. described, 
170-173, 182, 264, 267-270, Chapter XXIV, 294- 
298 ; drawbacks to, 267-270 ; inspection, 163, 
271, 272 ; grants-in-aid, 72, 73 ; statistics, 163, 
165, 167, 175, 385, 386. See also Lower Pri- 
mary, Upper Primary, Central, Middle, 
High Schools, Christian Training Institute, 
Girls' Boarding School, Summer School, 
Heathen Assistants, Educational System, 
Theological Seminary, Statistics, Drawbacks, 
&c. 

Schwartz : the apostle of India, 94. 

Scinde, Punjab and Delhi Railway, 76. 

Scorpions, troublesome, and sometimes deadly, 
45 ; ills., 69. 

Scotch, or Church of Scotland, Mission : enters 
India, 97, 98 ; fields, 97; Punjab Branch de- 
scribed, 98, 99 ; boundary adjusted, 101 ; class 
chiefly affected, 331 ; its agricultural settle- 
ment, 274, 325 ; co-operation with, 90. 

Scotch Episcopal Mission, 97. 

Scotland : what Dr. Duff said to its people, 162 ; 
compared with the U. P. field, 102. 

Scotland, Church of : its India Missions, see 
Scotch Mission ; its Ladies' Association, 279, 
284; Girls' Orphanage, 279, 284. 

Scott, Rev. G. W. : once a member of the U. P. 
Mission, 131. 

Scott, Rev. T. L. : publishes S. S. Lessons, 
267 ; superintends C. T. I., 282 ; building 
work, 144. 

Scott, Mrs. T. L. : experience with Gulam 
Bibi, 232. 



Scottgarh : not a success, 174. 

Scythian invasions of the Punjab, 27. 

Sea Chair, ills., 372. 

Searching the jungle, ills., 161. 

Seasons : hot and rainy, described, 40-43, 368. 

Second Class : on railways, 77 ; on ships, 11. 

Secret Converts, 238, 239. 

Secret fraternities of fakirs, 204, 205. 

Secretary of State for India, 28. 

Secular work of missionaries : Chapter XIV, 
37 2 > 373 > study of language, Chapter IX, 140; 
study of country and people, 141 ; financial 
business, 141-144 ; purchase of real estate, 143 ; 
building, 143, 144 ; secular teaching and school 
management, 144, 145, 272, 273 ; medical work, 
145, 146, 179-183; miscellaneous, 146; no good 
remedy, 146, 147 ; effect on spiritual life, 147, 
37 2 j 373 .' effect on evangelistic wOrk, 220, 
221. 

Secundra Orphanage : its publications, 308. 

Self-governing power: discussed, Chapter 
XXIII — see Contents ; a great end of mis- 
sions, 148, 149, 261, 262, 310, 311, 358. 

Self-support, in a financial sense : discussed. 
Chapter XXVI — see Contents ; its rarity in 
mission fields, 311, 312, 315-316; examples of, 
311 ; its present impossibility in U. P. field, 
315-324; duty to hasten it, and in what way, 
328-331 ; aided by giving ecclesiastical courts 
more power, 344 ; how helped by melas, 274 ; 
how far to be a basis of self-governing power, 
348. 

Semipelatinsk, in Siberia, 20. 

Separation of families : the great cross of mis- 
sion life, 60, 61. 

Sepi explained, 235. 

Serais, or native inns, described, 81, 152 ; used 
in mission work, 152, 192 ; ills., 182. 

Serampur translations of the Bible, 300, 302. 

Serfdom of Chuhra agriculturists, 243, 244. 

Sermons in India, described, 156, 157, 265, 198, 

199. 37°- 

Serpent Charmers, tils., 211. 

Servants in India : kept by missionaries, 59, 60, 
372 ; their faults, 59, 60 ; why kept, 59, 60 ; 
their cost, 60 ; a sphere for evangelism, 150, 151 ; 
cook, 60 ; mihtar, 60 ; gardener, 60 ; bihishti, 
190 ; groom, 227 ; chaukidar, 189, 255; ayah, 
150; are Christian servants worthless? 252, 
253. 

Sessions, Church : described, 130, 136, 333; rela- 
tion to panchayats , 271 ; relation to The Mis- 
sion, 299 ; training schools, through co-opera- 
tion, 299 ; defective number in U. P. Mission, 
333-336, 337 ; allusion 273 

Settlements, agricultural : discussed, 324, 327. 
See Villages, Christian. 

Seventy Disciples : an example for us, or not, 
206, 210. 

Shady Side: described, 50, 56; ills., 49. 

Shah Hamadan Mosque, ills., 36. 

Shahbaz, Rev. I. D. : his liberality, 315 ; his 
work as a poet, 303, 304. 

Shahpur District, described, 100. 

Shahpur village, of Kangra valley, 75. 

Shal, Raja : founded Sialkot, 103. 

Shamiana, preaching tent, described, 188. 

Shana : his liberality, 255. 

Shanars : a low caste, 245. 

Shastras, Hindu : sacred books, 35, 355. 

Shawls of Kashmir : original pattern in the 
windings of the Jhelum, ills., 86. 

Shekhopura : its ruins, 104. 

Sher Singh : his battle at Ramnagar, 104, 105. 

Shere Ali, of Afghanistan, 25. 

Shiahs : found in U. P. field, 121. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



409 



Shigrams : described, 80; found at Bombay, 15. 

Skikasta, or broken hand-writing, 268. 

Ships, ills., 13, 14, 17, 183, 242, 372, 382. 

Shiva. See Siva. 

Shivalas, denned, in. 

Shome, J. G., M. A., in favor of fakirism, 323. 

Shrines: of Sitala, in; of Sans Mai, 118; at 
Kotla, 353. 

Shurman, Rev. J. A. : Bible translator, 300. 

Sialkot cantonment, pronounced can-ro^w-ment 
in India : 31, 105 ; telegraph, 84 ; executive 
engineer, 280. 

Sialkot Church : self-sustaining for some years, 
315; supported partly by missionaries, 312 ; its 
liberality, 253 ; gift to the Chinese Relief 
Fund, 315. 

Sialkot City : founded by Raja Shal, 103 ; gar- 
risoned by Muhammad Ghori, 104; connected 
with Sikh rule, 104; Sikhs now there, 121; 
connected with the mutiny, 105; rain at, 42; 
heat at, 41 ; railway to, 76 ; shrine of Baba 
Nanak, 104; high-spired temple, 104; Baisakhi 
festival, 160 ; special manufactures, 106; non- 
Christians of, 237 ; U. P. Church — see Sial- 
kot Church; bazar preaching, 93, 282; bazar 
chapel, 228 ; book shop, 157, 184 ; summer 
school and conference, 90 ; zenana work af- 
fected by Amritsar debate, 199 ; conversion of 
a Moslem lady, 231 ; persecution, 225, 226, 
228, 231 ; municipal grants-in-aid, 181 ; Scotch 
Mission there also, 90 ; their settlement for 
Christians, 274, 325; their orphanage, 284 ; U. 
P. institutions at — see Theological Seminary, 
Girls' Boarding School, Christian Training 
Institute, High School, Women's Memorial 
Hospital, Dispensary, Girls' Schools, &c. ; 
allusions, 170, 182, 226, 227, 232, 278, 279, 285, 
289, 294, 325. 

Sialkot Civil District : population, 46 ; density of 
population, 103; death rate in 1890, 46; castes 
in, 116; melas there, 160; special manufactures, 
106 ; Gazetteer consulted, 116 ; its deputy com- 
missioner mentioned, 226, 228, 279 ; grants-in- 
aid from District Committee, i8t ; Missions 
laboring there, 98, 99, 101 ; Mission boundaries 
within, adjusted, 101, 102 ; success of the gos- 
pel there, 241, 242. See also Raya, Pasrur, 
Zafarwal, Sialkot City. Map. &c. 

Sialkot Mission. See United Presbyterian 
Mission. 

Sialkot Mission District: limits — see Map; 
institutions — see Sialkot City; Zafarwal and 
Marali formerly in it, 242 ; success of gospel 
in, 241, 242, 386. 

Sialkot Presbytery : its formation, 336 ; consti- 
tution, 130; powers, 130, 136; controlled the 
C. T. I., 278 ; manages the Theo. Seminary, 
288; its committees, 315, 336,337. See also 
Presbyteries and Ecclesiastical Courts. 

Sialkot Theological Seminary. See Theological 
Seminary. 

Siam, 21. 

Siberia, conquered, 23. 

Siberian railway and route, 20, 24. 

Sibi, route via, 19. 

Sicily passed, 13. 

Sighting Land, ills., 13. 

Sikhs: history and character, 112, 113; number, 
no ; increasing, 352 ; percentage in Punjab, 
no; favorite tongue, 302 ; sacred book, 112; 
among Chuhras, 118; Mazhabi, 113; pe- 
culiarities, 120 ; non-use of tobacco, 113 ; cos- 
tume, 113; fakirs, 204 ; caste. 116; conquered, 
98; loyalty, 113; connection with Dhulip 
Singh, 22, 23 ; connection with U. P. field, 
104, 105, 121; tank at Eminabad, 104; not 



Sikhs — Continued. 
highly educated, 113, 121 ; in schools, 195, 
267 ; in hospitals, 181 ; their fair, 160. 

Sikkim expedition, 22. 

Silver agitation in U. S. Congress, 73. 

Silversmith, tils., 325. 

Simla: summer capital of India, 50; fashionable, 
54 ; Mission there, 99 ; ills., 283 ; allusion, 53. 

Sinaitic group of mountains, visible, 14. 

Sind Peshin Railway, 19. 

Sind Sagar Railway, 76, 100. 

Sine titulo, without charge, 130. 

Singh, lion : origin of the title, 112, 113. 

Singing in worship, 265. 

Sitala, goddess of smallpox, in. 

Sites for mission buildings. See Real Estate. 

Siva, or Shiva: one of the Tri-murli, in; 
temples of, 111. 

Siwalik Range, 51. 

Skepticism. See under Infidelity. 

Skobeleff conquers the Turkomans, 23. 

Slavery abolished by Russia, 24. 

Sliding scale of church aid, 314. 

Smallpox goddess, in ; smallpox in the Punjab, 
45-47- 

Smith, George, LL. D. : his life of Henry Mar- 
tyn, 3 oi. 

Smith's " Short History of Missions," 339. 

Snakes: death from, 44, 45; experiences with, 
45 ; worshiped, 112 ; ills., 45, 211, 379. 

Snow : at hill station, 43 ; at Rawal Pindi, 40. 

Social Conditions of mission life in India : de- 
scribed, Chapter VI, 51, 52, 137, 176-178, 263, 
367, 376; effect on evangelism, 151, 152 ; effect 
on missionaries, 57, 63-68, 137, 367, 372,376; 
effect on native Christians, 66, 67, 274, 342-344. 
See Recreations, Missionaries and Christians . 

Social Intercourse : between missionaries and 
native Christians, 66, 67 ; between mission- 
aries and Anglo-Indians, 57, 63-65, 137, 367, 
372,376; between Anglo-Indians and natives, 
66-68; a means of evangelism, 151, 152. 

Social Evil in India: regulated by the Govern- 
ment » 33. 38. 39; very great, 124-126, 219, 252. 
See Public Morals. 

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, or S. 
P. G. : history and progress, 312 ; enters India, 
94, 95 ; fields, 97 ; publications, 308. 

Somali divers at Aden, 15. 

Sophia: on Constantinople route, 18. 

Sounaghar, or Sonaghar : ills., in. 

Southern Cross seen, 15. 

Spain, passed, 13. 

Special objects : gifts for, 69, 70. 

Spectator, of London, quoted, 352. 

Spinning-wheel, 263. 

Spirit, Holy : proofs of his working in U. P. 
Mission, 251-260. 

Spirituality : how affected by mission work, 147, 
368-378 — see Piety; an aid to evangelism, 
196, 197. 

Spiti : Buddhists of, 114. 

Spleen, in the Punjab, 46. 

Squirrels, ills., 250. 

Straddha, or worships of ancestors, 112. 

Srinagar: described, 53; ills., 36. 

Staff of Administration, 29. See British Rule. 

Stage. See Dak gari, Tonga, &c. 

Stages of missionary work, 148, 149, 161. 

Stag's Head, ills., 338. 

States. See Natiz>e States. 

Statesman, on the Outlook, 360. 

Statesmanship, needed in missions, 313, 378. 

" Statistical Tables " of Protestant Missions in 
India, referred to, or quoted, 241, 339, 351, 384, 
385. 



410 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Statistics : their value, 239, 240. 

Statistics of C. M. S., 312. 

Statistics of India : area, 95 ; Army, 30 ; British 
territory, 28; Chaplains, 36; Cholera, 46, 54; 
Civil Service, 29, 30; Colleges, 121, 122, 163; 
death-rate from wild animals and disease, 44- 
46, 48, 128 ; density of population, 109 ; dis- 
eases, 46 ; ecclesiastical establishment, 36 ; fa- 
kirs, 206 ; female mortality, 128 ; English- 
speaking natives, 86 ; fevers, 46 ; heat, 41 ; 
leng.h of service of missionaries, 385 ; low- 
caste people, 355, 356 ; male mortality, 128 ; 
mortality, 44-46, 48. 128 ; Native States, 28, 
98; Police, 30; population, 95, 109; popula- 
tion by sects, 1 10, 1 19, 120 ; postal service, 82 ; 
Punjab, 96; railways, 76; rainfall, 42, 43; 
r.iiny season, 42; schools generally, 122, 163, 
J ^7> I 75> 385; religions, non-Christian, no, 
352 ; telegraphs, 84 ; University Examinations, 

121. 

Statistics of Ind^a Missions: General, 95, 241, 
35 r ' 35 2 > 3^ 4, 3^5 ; °*" P un J aD Missions and 
Christians, 119, 120, 241, 384, 385 ; of the 
various Provinces, 351, 3S2, 384, 385 ; of the 
various ecclesiastical families, 384, 385; of the 
C M. S., 312 ; of the M. E. Missions, 241 ; of 
Protestants and R. Catholics, 215 ; medical 
missions, 179- vernacular literature, 308, 309 ; 
longevity of missionaries, 364, 365, 385. 

Statistics of Madagascar Mission, 311. 

Statistics of U. P. field and Mission : General, 
240-243, 316, 320, 322, 333, 334, 386 ; area, 102, 
103; castes of Sialkot, 116; Christian Train- 
ing Institute, 284; classes, or religions, 12T ; 
educated native Christians, 294, 295 ; Girls' 
Boarding School, 284, 288 ; liberality, 331, 332 ; 
ministry, 338, 339; Mission Districts, 241, 242, 
386 ; mortality among missionaries, 48 ; pop- 
ulation, 103, 121, 240, 241 ; Primary Schools, 
267; Rawal Pindi and Hazara, J02 ; S. 
Schools, 266; Schools, 267, 386. 

Steamers : first and second classes on, compared, 

Stewart, Archibald, Esq.: his legacy to missions, 
70; use in building the C. T. I., 71, 279; rest 
available for other similar purposes, 71, 289. 

Stewart, Sir Donald: Commander-in- chief, 30. 

Stewart, Robert, the writer of this book : visit 
to India, 237; superintendent C. T. I., 278, 
282; principal Theo. Seminary, 289; experi- 
ence with an enquirer, 203 ; translation work, 
185, 306, 307; building work, 144, 2.79, 280; 
farewell address to, 280; his article in the 1. E. 
Review, quoted from, 290, 291 ; experience 
with snakes, 45. 

Stewart, Mrs. Robert : work in the Institute, 
282. 

Stipend System : Oriental or not, 206, 208. 

Stou~hton's " Religion in England," 215. 

Stratford on Avon, 13. 

Streams, sometimes dangerous, 75, 76. 

Street preaching in India, 154-158. See Bazar 
Preaching-. 

Streets of villages, 263. 

Strife hurtful to mission work, 95, 96, 219-223, 
358, 373- See Conflicts. 

Studies of missionaries, 86, 140, 141, 365, 366, 

37°- 

Sub-superintendents of missions : who they are, 

and what they do, 271, 272. 
Suez Canal : when opened, 9 ; going through, 

J3> ] 4- 
Suez City : en rotite, 14, 17. 
Suez, Gulf of: described, 14. 
Suez Isthmus: crossed, 9, 13, 14. 
Sugar ; made at Sujanpur, 106. 



Sujanpur : noted for sugars, 106. 

Sultan : Victoria's ally, 24. 

Summer School for workers, described, 298 ; c6- 

operation in, 90. 
Sun, or sola, hats : needed in India, 15, 41 ; ills., 

141, 161. 
Sun ni sect of Muhammadans, 121. 
Sunny Side at Dharmsala : described, 50; 

double-storied, 56; ills., 49. 
Superintendents of mission work : how ap- 
pointed, 137; natives eligible, 347 ; of schools, 

282, 286 ; of missions — what they do, 134, 136, 

138, 272, 273. See Sub- superintendents. 
Superstitions of India people, in, 112, 116. 
Surat : on road to the Punjab, 16 ; Parsees there, 

115 ; rainfall at, 42. 
Surgeons in India, 35, 47, 48. See Doctors. 
Surgical operations : enumerated, 182. 
Suspicion, habit of: engendered among the 

heathen, 371. 
Sutlej : one of the " five rivers," 96 ; crossed by 

Presbyterians, 98. 
Suttee, or widow-burning : made unlawful, 35 ; 

inclination to, 354. See Sati-Chaunra. 
Swan : ills., 260. 
Swedish Mission, 97. 
Sweepers: See Chuhras ; ills., sweeper children,, 

124. 
Sweetmeat vender, ills., 124. 
Swift, Rev. E. P.: once in " The Mission," 131; 

his debate with Saraswati, 201 ; quoted, 233. 
Swine: abominated by Sikhs as well as Moslems, 

112. 
Sympathy: its drain on the nervous system, 

3 6 3- 

Synod of the Punjab : organized, 130, 288, 336; 
what Presbyteries in it, 336; its Permanent 
Committees, 337: controls the Theo. Semi- 
nary, 288, 289 ; defects, 337, 349 ; allusion, 273. 
See also Ecclesiastical Courts. 

Syria : its Arabic, 87 ; Moslem architecture in, 
116. 

Syrian Christians, of India : alluded to, 122. 

Tahsil : explained, 96, 100 ; tahsil town, or head 

centre, 182. 
Tailor bird and nest, ills., 93. 
Taki: now Asarur. 103. 
Takkas : founded Taxila and Asarur, 103. 
Talang, a peak near Dharmsala, 51. 
Talents needed by a missionary, 378^380. 
" Talim ul Iman," a useful book, 307. 
Tamasha, defined, 192. 
Tarun, a mountain near Dharmsala, 51. 
Tashkend reached by railway, 19. 
Tatti : of a town, described, 109; Dogri, near 

Gujranwala, 242. 
Tawi, near Jamu, 76. 
Taxila : described, 103 ; its ruins, 105. 
Taylor, Bishop : his self-sacrificing methods, 

206. 
Taylor, Canon : on native Christians, 249 ; on 

the growth of Islam, 352, 353. 
Taylor, Rev. W., M. D., of Japan : article on 

ill-health, 364. 
Tea plantations of Kangra, 51. 
Teachers: in village schools, 267, 268; in all 

schools, many non-Chiistian, 146, 168, 170, 

172, 268, 286, 296, 297 ; some Christian, 318, 386 ; 

wages of such, 267, 268, 316, 318. 
Teaching Christianity in villages, 264; in schools, 

163, 172, 281, 286, 289, 290 ; in zenanas, 176- 

179. 
Teaching ; secular work of, 44, 45- 
Teeth-cleaning among natives of India, 120, 



TOPICAL INDEX 



411 



Teetotalism of American Missions, 222. 

Tej Singh, Raja, 104. 

Telegraphs of India: described, 84 ; ills., 238. 

Telephones in India, 84. 

Telugus, aliuded to, 245. 

Temper of missionaries : affected by climate 
and disease, 368, 369. 

Temperance: of natives, 122; a condition of 
church membership, 222. 

Temperature of the Punjab, 40, 41, 368; at 
Dnarmkot, 54. 

Temples, Hindu: common, in ; of Siva, 111 ; 
of the Sikhs, 112; new ones erected, 353; 
ills., 17, in, 124, 141, 159, 214. 

Ten commandments : should candidates for bap- 
tism know them? 219, 220. 

Tennessee : compared with U. P. field, 103. 

Tents : with their furniture, described, 178, 188 ; 
ills., 186. _ 

Territorial division of mission field desirable, 95, 
96. 

Testimony: of the Indian Government regard- 
ing missions, 36, 37; of Sir Charles Elliott, 36, 
37 ; of various persons regarding native Chris- 
tians, 249,254-260; regarding churches, 254; 
regarding the work generally, 256; official, of 
the Mission, 257. 

Testimony-bearing as an evangelistic agency, 
197. 

Thackwell, Rev. Reese : at Rawal Pindi, 102. 

Thakur Das, Rev. G. L. : his style of living, 
66; his ministerial grade, 339; Theo. profes- 
sor, 288, 289, 347 ; sisp't missions, 348; trans- 
lates Book of Discipline, 308; publications in 
general, 185; leaves the Mission, but may re- 
turn, 315. 

Thana to Bombay: first railway in India, 76. 

Thebaw's overthrow, 21. 

Theological Seminaries : fruits not confined to 
the Missions sustaining them, 90. 

Theological Seminary, Sialkot : origin, 288; lo- 
cation, 289 ; control, 288 ; support, 288 ; build- 
ing, 289 ; library, 289 ; professors, 288, 289, 
347; aim, 289; standard of admission, 292; 
curriculum of study, 289, 290 ; text books 
scarce, 292 ; some books mentioned, 307; com- 
pared with American Seminaries, 290; Greek 
and Hebrew should be taught, 289-291 ; stu- 
dents from C. T. I., 284; why so few, 339, 
340 ; drawbacks to, 292 ; results, 293 ; allusion, 
278. 

Theological students, portraits, 342. 

Theological works in Urdu, 300 to 309, especially 
3°7- 

Thibet, separated by a barrier from India, 21. 

Third class railway accommodations : in Eng- 
land, 13 ; in India, 77. 

Thomas, John : a surgeon, and pioneer mission- 
ary, 94. 

Thomas, M. A. : position in the Institute, 282. 

Thumb mirror, His.. 174. 

Tiflis, on northern route, 18, 19. 

Tiger : ills., 39, 74, 238. 

Tigris river, 17, 20. 

Tika : described, 120 ; on Vaishnavas and Sai- 
vas, 120. 

Times, of London, quoted, 36. 

Timothy, First 13:2, referred to, 222. 

Titarna, a peak near Dharmsala, 51. 

Tithe system of giving in India : discussed, 320- 
322 ; followed by missionaries, 71, 72, 377. 

Tobacco, not used by Sikhs and others, 113, 122. 

Tombs and saints reverenced by Moslems, n6. 

Tomsk founded, 23. 

Tonga, described, 80 ; at Pathankot, 54, 75 ; 
used in carrying mails, 82 ; allusion, 78. 



Topi and helmet, ills., 141, 161. 
Toral peak, near Dharmsala, 51. 
Torches, ills., 161. 

Tours of missionaries, 185-195, 272, 273. 
Towers of Silence, at Bombay, 15. 
Towns and cities : described, 108, 109 ; some- 
times of different religions, 109. 
Tracts used in mission work, 306. 
Tradition of the Chuhras, about Gugga, 118, 

119 ; about Balisha, 246, 247. 
Training Christians: lower, Chapter XXIII 

— see Contents ; higher, Chapters XXIV, 

XXV — see Contents ; by missionaries, 191 ; 

what training includes, 262 ; its necessity, 277; 

training high castes, 262 : low castes, 262, &c. ; 

results, 276, 349 ; crowding out evangelization, 

195, 220, 221. See Christians. Converts. &c. 
Training elders : 271, 335 and Chapter XXVIII. 
Training missionaries : at home, 299 ; in the 

field, Chapter IX, 136, 140, 141. See also 

Missionaries and Qualifications. 
Training native ministry : XXIV, XXV and 

XXVIII — see Contents. S-;e also Ministry, 

Theological Seminary, and Ecclesiastical 

Courts. 
Tramway, or street railway, in Bombay, ills., 

375- 
Tranquebar, entered by the Danes, 94. 
Transcaspian railway : 18-20. 
Trai slation of various books, 185, 300-309. See 

also Literature and Bible Translation. 
Transmigration of souls : believed by Hindus, 

111 ; by Sikhs, 112 ; by Aryans, 114; rejected 

by Chamars, 118; allusion, 353. 
Travel : a great means of intelligence, 365. 
Travel in India : 15, 16, Chapter VIII, 186, 187; 

outfit, 81, 82. See Itinerating Work. 
Travelers in the Punjab : few, 64, 65. 
Treasurers, general and sub- : their work, 136, 

137, Mi-i44- 
Treo : worship of, 112 ; ills., 248. 
Tri-murti, or Hindu trinity, in. 
Trip to India : described, 12-17 i ' ts cost, 12. 
Truth : its self-evidencing power, 198, 199 ; better 

than controversy, 198-201. See Controversy. 
Tum-tums : desenbed, 81, 186, 187; ills., 186. 
Turbans: when worn, 264 ; ills., 108, 117, 155, 

159, 342. See Pagri. 
Turkestan conquered, 23. 

Turkish Government : its obstructiveness, 18. 
Turkomans conquered, 23. 

Turnpikes, or metaled roads, in U. P. field, 75. 
Tyndale's English Translation, 302. 
Types of Punjabies, ills., 124. 

Uganda : Rev. R. P. Ashe, of, 312. 

Ullmann, Rev. J. F., at Rawal Pindi, 102. 

Unit Bakhsh, overseer, 280. 

Under Full Sail, ills., 242. 

Underworkers. See Workers and Village 
Underworkers . 

Union in mission work, 89-93; Presbyterian, 91, 
92 ; in S. S. movements, 267. See Co-opera- 
tion, S. S. Union, &c. 

United Presbyterian Board. See Board of 
Foreign Missions. 

U. P. Church in America : her formation, 71, 09 ; 
Q. C. Fund, 71 ; her attitude towards native 
Church of India, 317 ; regarded by the latter 
as a loving mother, 346 ; her growing liber- 
ality, 69 : gratitude of non-Christians towards, 
237 ; length of the ministry of her clergymen, 
364 ; number of elders in her sessions, 333. 
See Home Church. 

U. P. Church in India. See Church, V. P., in 
India. 



412 



^TOPICAL INDEX 



U. P. General Assembly. See General As- 
sembly. 

U. P. Mission in India, as an organized body : 
called often ''The Sialkot Mission," or " The 
Mission," 131 ; general description, 129-139 ; 
its organization, 131 ; changes of membership, 
131, 132; admission of women, 131, 132 ; Man- 
ual, 132 ; relations to the Board of F. M., 132 ; 
Annual Meeting, 133, 134, 136,137; business 
by Circular, 134; powers, 132-139; holds 
money power, 299, 300; appointments, 137, 
138 ; autocratic methods, 138, 139, 273 ; ref- 
lations to ecclesiastical courts, 134-136, 299, 
300 ; relation to native ministry and workers, 
138, 139, 347 ; policy regarding fakirism, 208- 
217 ; policy regarding educational evangelism, 
170-173 ; policy regarding Church self-support, 
314, 316, 347; takes charge of the Institute, 
27S ; its relation to the Theo. Seminary, 288 ; 
opposes prayers of memorialists, 347; but 
makes concessions to native brethren, 347 ; an 
anomaly, 139. 346, 347; should as soon as pos- 
sible be abolished, 346, 347 ; allusion, 344 ; 
its mode of reporting communicants, 333, 334. 
See next two objects— also Church, U. P., in 
India. Policy, Ministers and Missionaries. 

U. P. Mission in India — in a broad sense : its 
controlling powers, Chapter XIII — see also the 
preceding subject ; its field, 99-106 ; people, 
Chapter XII ; foreign laborers — see Mission- 
aries ; native laborers — see Workers and 
Ministers ; methods — see Evangelistic Work 
and Training ; machinery complicated and 
autocratic, 273; obstructions. Chapter XX; 
success, Chapters XXI, XXII, 337, 349, 350 ; 
secular work, Chapter XIV ; statistics, see 
Statistics ; deficient in Church organization 
and ecclesiastical maturity, Chapters XXVI 
to XXVIII ; especially, 314, 316, 337, 349, 
350 ; contributions, 315, 316 ; number of 
families, 320, 322; educated people, 294-297; 
baptized adults, 333 ; institutions, 170, 182, 
278. See also subordinate subjects. 

U. P. Mission field: described, 96-106; addi- 
tions of Jhang and Bhera, 99, 100 ; boundaries 
settled. 101, 102; addition of Rawal Pindi, 
101, 102 ; present size and population, 102, 
103 ; points of historical interest, 103-105 ; 
ruins, 105; geographic features, 105, 106; 
manufacturers, 106; map, see Frontispiece; 
people, Chapter XII. See Statistics, &c. 

U. P. Mission (Scotch), 97. 

United States of America : climate, 362 ; min- 
isterial longevity. 364 ; compared with other 
countries, 367, 368 ; effects of silver legislation 
by Congress, 73 ; President's salary, 30. 

Universities of India : named, 163, 164; their 
controlling power, 164, 165, 166 ; examinations 
of 1891, 121, 122; statistics of examinations 
in Mission Schools, 384. 

Unmarried lady missionaries : not celibates, 212 ; 
relation to "The Mission." 131, 132 ; relation 
to local Churches, 130. See also Lady Mis- 
sionaries. 

Upper Primary Grade : defined, 164 ; in our 
higher schools for Christians, 278, 288 ; a 
standard proposed for theologues, 292. 

Urdu tongue: described, 85, 86, 268-270; by 
whom used most, 85, 268 ; taught in schools, 
85, 268 ; studied by missionaries, 86; alphabet, 
268 ; characters used, 268, 269 ; moderately 
hard, 88, 140, 268, 269 ; Christian literature 
in, 184, 185, 300-309 ; commentaries in, needed, 
306 ; allusion, 370. 

Usury in India: common, 37, 38,84, 127; not 
allowed to Muhammadans, 123. See Banya. 



Uzun Ada : reached by railway, 19 ; route via, 30. 

Vaccination : its use and dangers of, 46, 47. 

Vaishnavas : described, 113 ; their tika, 120. 

Vaishnavism : described, in. 

Vancouver, on western route to India, 17. 

Vedas : Hindu sacred books, 114, 117 ; respected 
by Aryans, 114; the professed basis of re- 
ligious reform, 114, 355, 356. 

Vegetables of the Punjab, afso imported, 57. 

Veiled ladies. See Pardah and Pardah-Nishin. 

Verandas : common in houses of India, 55, 56, 66, 
176 ; ills.-, 144, 278. 368. 

Vermin and other nuisances, 58, 59 ; in villages 
and schools, 286, 287. 

"Via Media" mode of living: described, 205; 
undesirable for missionaries, 208-217. 

Viceroys : their appointment, powers, assistants 
and salary, 28-30 ; their style of living, 2C4 ; 
an account of four, 31-33 ; the grave of one, 
52 ; allusion to, 21. 

Victoria, Queen : a hindrance to the Czar, 24. 

Village Christian schools : described, 145, 170, 
267-270 ; village school, ills., 184. See Pri- 
mary Schools. 

Village life in India, 108, 109, 243, 263. 

Village missionary work : 190, 191, 262-274 ; ills., 
186. 194. 

Village pond : tils., 184. See ChJiappars. 

Village underworker's duties, 201, 202, 262-267. 

Villages of India : described, 108, 109, 263 ; their 
officers, 189, 190; Christian work in them, 190, 
191, 262-274, and its success, 243 ; number in 
U. P. field containing Christians, 243, 316, 386. 

Villages, Christian : their value and success, 274, 
275. See Settlements . 

Violence : deaths by, 44, 45. 

Vishnu, one of the Tri-murti, in. 

Visits paid us by home friends, 64, 65. 

Vladikavkaz, on northern route, 18, 19. 

Vladivostok, on the Pacific, 20. 

Voluntary work by native Christians, 251, 253, 
254, 195, 196, 281, 282. 

Wadhawa's wife's Christian feeling, 255. 

Wages of Punjabies, 109. 

Wahabies, a Moslem sect, 121. 

Waldenses mentioned, 206. 

Wards, or Mahallas. of cities, 158, 159. 

Warren's "Hebrew Grammar," 307. 

Washermen, Native, ills., 214. 

Watchman. See Chaukidar and 189. 

Water-carrier. See Bihishti. 

Water fowl, wild, 187. 

Wazirabad : turnpike to, 75; railway from, 76; 
occupied by the Scotch Mission, 99, 101. 

Wealth of converts in India. See Converts and 
Christians. 

Weaver Birds and Nest, ills., 350. 
I Weavers of Zafarwal, 325. 
j Weitbrecht's " Urdu Christian Literature," 
j Welis for irrigation : ills., 9, 153. 
I Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, 97. 

Wesleyan Chaplains, 36. 

Wesleyan Missionary Society ; entered India, 94, 
97; fields, 97. 

West, Miss : her literary style, 367. 

Westminster Assembly's Shorter Catechism, 
translated, 306. 

Westward Bound, ills., 382. 

Wherry's translation of Moffit's History, 307. 

White Ants: their depredations, 59; their hills, 
ills., 59. 

White man's presence : as an influence in evan- 
gelism, 156. 

White, Maria, M. D. : medical work, 181-183. 



308. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



413 



White, Sir George, Commander-in-chief of the 
Indian Army, 30. 

Whitney, Prof. W. D., on the Urdu tongue, 85. 

Widows, Hindu : cannot remarry, 125 ; reform 
regarding, 355. 

Wilson, Miss C. E. : her girls' schools, 172 ; in 
a zenana, 227; her biographical sketch of 
native Christians, 257-260. 

Wilson, Rev. James, Bible translator, 300. 

Windings of the Jhelum, ills , 86. 

Wine used in the Lord's Supper, 266. 
Witness, Indiin : a help to us, 92. 

Wolves : heard in itinerating, 191 ; ills., 225. 

Women generally: how viewed by natives of 
India, 125, 126, 287 ; as viewed by Hindus and 
Hinduism, 125, T26 ; as viewed by Moslems, 
68, 1^5, 126; publicly discoursing, 150, 178 
179, 265. 

Women of India : their ignorance, illiteracy and 
seclusion, 174, 175, 287; their influence in the 
zenana, 175 ; bigotry, 48, 112 ; standing among 
Hindus, 125, 126; among Moslems, 68, 125, 
126 ; have few avenues of business, 287 ; early 
marriage, 175; excluded from bazar crowds, 
157; importance of evangelizing them, 174, 175; 
methods of doing so. Chapter XVII, 150, 157, 
159; at bazar preaching, 157; at mahalla 
preaching. 159 ; harder to evangelize them 
than men, 243; some anxious to learn, 176, 
252 ; their clothing, no. i2r, 342, &c. ; their 
jewelry, ills., 174, 228, &c. ; habit in riding, 
187; in a common court, ills., 359; ills., 65, 
x 53i x 55- I 77. J 8o, 228, 252, &c. See also 
Hindus. Mtt.hammada.ns, Punjabies , &c. 

Women, Christian, of India: in School, ills., 
298; eating, ills., 2S8 ; clothing, 288, 298, &c, 
accessible to male workers, 272. See also 
Christians and Converts. 

Women, missionary : See Lady Missionaries 
and Missionaries. 

Women's Board : help from, 70, 71. 

Women's Department, C. T. I.: described, 282; 
ills. , 298. 

Women's Memorial Hospital, Sialkot : its erec- 
tion and work, 182, 183: helped by the Govern- 
ment, 73; getting land for it, 226, 227. 

Women s Missionary Magazine, quoted, 296. 

Women's Missionary Societies in U. P. Mission 
field : their organization, 131 ; their number 
and importance, 271 ; Presbyterial, 131 ; at 
Zafarwal, 252. 

Women's Societies in India : their S. Schools, 
385. See Lady Missionaries. 

Wood, Sir Charles : his famous school despatch, 
163. 164. 

"\\ ork in Missions. See Mission Work. Village 
Missionary Work. Evangelistic Work, &c. 

Workers, Native Christian : in great demand 
and command good wages, 318, 319 ; should 
be trained by each Mission for itself, 278 ; how 
trained in the U. P. field, Chapters XXIV, 
XXV and under Training; from the Insti- ' 
V te, -82 : their selection in villages, 201, 202; | 
Uieir style of living, 65, 66, 205, 263 ; social | 
customs, 66 ; intercourse with missionaries, 
66, 67; direction by them, 67, 138, 139 ; their 
special work, 196, 202, 262, &c. ; the help they 



Workers, Native Christian — Continued. 

give, 146, 147, 195, 196, 254 ; monthly meet- 
ings of, 273; imperfect, 220, 221, 275; com- 
plained of by missionaries and charges against 
missionaries. 297, 342-344 ; ills., 252. 278, 305, 
342. See also under Christians and Ministers. 

Worldliness : not a besetting sin of missionaries, 

„ 377- 

"Worldly influences not used in mission work, 
although charged against it, 201-203. 

Worldly motives : sometimes manifested by con- 
verts, 202, 203 ; diminished, some say, by 
fakirism, 207, 208. 

Worry : its effect on the nerves, 363 ; much 
found in mission work, 264 ; in home fields 
also, 364 ; effect on the temper, 369. 

Worship : forms and exercises of, in U. P. field, 
264-266. 

Yakub Khan, 2 = . 

Yarmak begins Russian progress in Asia, 23. 

Yokahama. on Western route to India, 17. 

}"<?«/ and Linga, in 

Youngson's "Greek Grammar," 307. 

Yttg, or jfug, defined, 247. 

" Zabur avr Git" : used in worship, 302. 

Zafiirwal : beginning of work there, 242 ; 
Christian weavers of. 325 ; Brahman convert 
of, 239; its W. M. S., 252 ; Christian village 
near it, 274; incident in 1883, 161: Piyara's 
baptism, 233 ; originally in the Sialkot Mission 
District, 242. 

Zafarwal Mission District: its extent— see Map 
in frontispiece; number of Christians there, 
241 ; progress made and statistics, 386 ; referred 
to, 242. 

Zaildar : defined, 226; persecution by one at 
Sabzkot, 226. 

Zamindars (farmers') : opposed to low-castes 
becoming Christians, 232, 233; what they say 
against Christianity, 233 ; among Christians, 
243. 2 44- 

Zumindari schools: defined, ?68 ; established 
165. 

Zeal for the salvation of others among native 
Christians, 195, 196, 254. 

Zenana ; meaning of the word, 176; described, 
176. 

Zenana work: discussed, Chapter XVII; its 
importance. 174, 175, 328,331; appointments 
to. 137; number of zenanas open to mission- 
aries, 176 ; methods of work, 176-178 ; disad- 
vantages, 178: obstructions, 219, 227-229; 
men occasionally met with. 178; affected by 
Amir Bibi's baptism, 229 ; affected by a pub- 
lic debate, 199; advantages, 178; its results, 
178 ; some zenana women anxious to learn, 
176,252; varied experiences, 177, 178; speci- 
mens of, 227 ; broader sense of the term zenana 
ivork, 178, 179. See Women and Workers, 
Ch ristia n . 
Zenana workers among Christians, 272, 273. 
Zhob valley war, 21. 
Ziegenbalg arrives in India, 94. 
Zoroastrians of India — that is, Parsees. See 
Par sees. 



ADDENDA 



ADDITIONAL YEARLY STATISTICS. See- p. 386. 



Year 



Ordained Missionaries in the field 

Married Lady Missionaries in the field 

Unmarried Lady Missionaries in the field... . 

Ordained Native Ministers 

Licentiates 

Other Christian Helpers 

Elders of Congregations 

Organized Churches 

Unorganized Centres 

Villages Containing Christians 

Communicants 

Baptized Infants and Adherents 

"Whole Christian Population 

Increase by Profession 

Increase by Certificate, etc 

Adult Baptisms .. 

Infant Baptisms 

Number of Sabbath-schools 

Number of Sabbath -school Scholars 

Number of Day-schools 

Number of Day-school Scholars 

Contributions in rupees for religious purposes 



1895 


1896 


1897 


II 


14 


16 


II 


14 


16 


14 


19 


21 


9 


9 


10 


1 


3 


5 


209 


237 


170 


49 


61 


57 


16 


19 


19 


59 


55 


91 


561 


547 


546 


t>3*7 


6568 


6327 


3525 


3344 


374o 


9912 


9912 


10067 


564 


698 


349 


548 


438 


538 


579 


640 


237 


403 


572 


201 


125 


122 


89 


3022 


378i 


3062 


170 


190 


157 


6261 


6474 


6441 


1686 


2190 


2206 



16 
15 

21 

9 

11 

164 

55 

19 

i47 

458 

5985 

3405 

939° 

85 

559 

73 

173 

93 

3*3° 

102 

6104 

2895 



NOTES. 

Note 1. — An important centre for the management of the Chenab Canal (p. 325) 
was formed near the western boundary of Gujranwala, in 1896, and named Lyall- 
pur, after the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab. Around this place and all along 
the canal, which was dug for purposes of irrigation, large settlements of native 
farmers have been made, chiefly by immigration from other parts of the surrounding 
districts, and many of the settlers are Christians. A new Mission District has there- 
fore been carved out of Western Gujranwala and Jhang, with headquarters at 
Lyallpur, which becomes an important field for religious labor; while' that part of 
West Gujranwala not included in the new district has been called Hafizabad, after 
(414) 



ADDENDA 415 

its chief town and centre. That part of Jhang, moreover, not covered by the Dis- 
trict of Lyallpur has been abandoned to the C. M. S., on the condition that this 
society leaves Lyallpur entirely to us. 

Note 2. — According to the " Constitution and By-Laws of the Sialkot Mission," re- 
vised, and printed in 1895, native ministers and lay-workers of the Upper Grade 
(excepting school employees) are, " as regards employment and dismissal," made 
" subject only to the Mission ; " but they can be temporarily suspended by the Super- 
intendent in charge, while school employees and lay-workers of the Lower Grade 
may be dismissed at his will, although the latter, feeling aggrieved by his action, 
" have the right of appeal to the Mission " itself. 

Note 3.— The attention of Lord George Hamilton, Secretary of State for India, 
was called to this statement by Lieutenant-General J. W. Laurie, M. P., with the 
inquiry whether it was supported by facts. 

In Lord George Hamilton's reply he says : 

"As a matter of fact missionaries in India, as well as other members of the com- 
munity, are at liberty to criticise and oppose the action of the government in any way 
that commends itself to their judgment, provided they do not infringe the provisions 
of the law. And, as regards the particular instance referred to, the accused (a mis- 
sionary) was found guilty at the suit of a private person of publishing a libel, and 
was sentenced to pay a fine — as any other individual would have been — in default 
of which he was imprisoned. The government neither directly nor indirectly had 
anything to do with the matter." 

These remarks hardly touch the point of the note on page 218, against which they 
are directed. 

That the government of India as fundamentally established and as generally rep- 
resented by the viceroy, or the Secretary of State for Indii, throws no special ob- 
structions in the way of missions, and gives favorable conditions for Christian work, 
is cheerfully acknowledged, and has been mentioned in this book. (See Chapter 
III.) But that in the trial referred to minor officials acted in a very different man- 
ner, and did virtually join the ranks of those who persecuted missionaries, can hardly 
be denied by those who read .the credible reports of that trial as published at the 
time. 

Nor was that case altogether exceptional. Many missionaries know from personal 
experience how much an unfriendly official, European or native, can help their ene- 
mies, baffle their enterprises, and make them miserable; though seldom does such 
persecution reach the extent of fine and imprisonment. 

Note 4. — Some modification of the remarks made on pp. 249, 250, and 369, about 
revivals in India, must be made in view of recent events which have occurred in our 
own and other missions. A striking work of grace (what we generally call a re- 
vival), among native workers, students, and the more highly educated classes of the 
people, began at a meeting of the Sialkot Presbytery in Pasrur, March 24, 1896, and 
has been continued from time to time in various places from that day to this. The 
power of the Spirit of God has been felt not only at Pasrur on different occasions, but 
also in the Synod at Thelum, in the Theological Seminary, the Christian Training 
Institute, and the Girls' Boarding-School at Sialkot, in Summer Schools held at 



416 ADDENDA 

Gujranwala and Sialkot, and in Conventions and Conferences assembled at Zafarwa! 
and oiher points. 

The highly spiritual character of this movement has been manifested in deep con- 
trition for sin, in the confession of faults one to another, in restitution for wrong 
done, in strong crying and tears, in a love of prayer, praise, and other means of 
grace, in attachment to God's Word, in affection for the brethren, in greater conse- 
cration to Christ's service, in tithe-giving, in diminished covetousness, in a willing- 
ness to serve God without promised pay, and in other ways. And both sexes have 
been affected alike. " Women that never before dared to pray in public, much less 
stand up and speak, stood and confessed their sins with weeping, and prayed with 
wonderful fervency." 

Similar movements, though generally less powerful, have also been witnessed re- 
cently in other India Missions. 

And yet it may still be said that revival influences have only to a very slight de- 
gree reached the common people. It is the educated and the official class almost 
exclusively who have thus felt the workings of the Divine Spirit. The fact, how- 
ever, that our people are capable of revival is a proof of the genuineness of the 
change which they have experienced and a proof that our ingathering has been in- 
deed a work of grace. (See p. 249, etc.) 

Note 5. — In the spring of 1899 a grant of land was made by the government to 
our Mission for a Christian settlement. This will no doubt be used for the purpose 
for which it was given. A village will be built, where artisans of all kinds will live, 
and where farmers tilling the land round about will make their home. 

Note 6. — The General Assembly of 1897, on appeal, decided that according to our 
present law ministers are ineligible to the eldership. 

Note 7. — A beginning 1 in this direction has been made, under the stimulus of mis- 
sionaries in the field, urged on by Foreign Boards, which are uniting in a special ef- 
fort to press the subject of self-support to a practical conclusion — under the stimulus, 
too, it may be, of the revival spirit whose rise has been described in a previous note, 
although the refusal of a salary, either from a congregation or a Board, is not neces- 
sarily an evidence of greater spirituality. (Note 4.) Some preachers and under- 
worked have voluntarily given up the pay which they received from the Mission and 
have agreed to accept whatever the people they serve may be able, and see fit, to 
give them; while others have this spring (1899) been ordained and installed pastors 
with the same understanding. What the effect of this course will be on the intel- 
lectual growth of the ministry, on the religious education and indoctrination of the 
people, on the conversion of the higher classes, and on the advancement of the 
church speedily to a position of power, remains to be seen. 



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